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hajj without any recompense, for they would not help their fellow travellers
whom they find in trouble.
Abū'l-Nasr al-Tammar relates that somebody informed Bishr ibn al-Harith
of his intention to set out for hajj. Bishr asked, "What have you got to meet
the expenses?" The man replied, "Two thousand dirhams." "And what is the
purpose of your journey?" demanded Bishr again. "Do you want to make a
show of your piety, visit the Ka'ba, or seek the pleasure of Allah?" The man
replied, "To seek the pleasure or Allah." "Very well," said Bishr, "but would you
agree if I tell you a method whereby you would attain the pleasure of Allah
without having to go all the way for hajj? You would undoubtedly spend the
money you have, but you would also be satisfied that you have done something
that would be pleasing to the Lord."
When the man said yes, Bishr told him, "You should distribute the amount
you have set aside for the hajj among ten insolvent persons so that they may
pay off their debts, or to paupers who may live on it, or to orphans or persons
in indigent circumstances. If you like, you may give the entire amount to a
single person. Rendering help to the poor or the needy or anyone in trouble is
better than performing a hundred voluntary pilgrimages. Now you should do
as I have told you, but if you have any hesitation, tell me about it." "The truth
is," the man rejoined, "that I want to undertake the journey." Bishr smiled and
remarked, "When the money is obtained from prohibited or doubtful sources,
the insinuating self of man urges him to gratify its desires, which it often brings
forth in the garb of virtuous acts to deceive him. Allah Almighty has, however,
decided that He would accept the deeds of only those who fear Him."1
Another group among the moneyed but miserly is more interested in such
devotional acts on which nothing is to be spent. They like to keep fast, offer
prayers, or recite the Qur'an. These persons, too, are deceiving themselves
because stinginess has captured their souls. They ought to spend their money
in order to cure themselves of the malady, but they keep themselves busy in
acts that are really not required of them. These people are like the man who
is about to be bitten by a snake that will undoubtedly kill him, but instead
keeps himself busy in preparing a syrup for relieving his cough. These misers
do not stand in need of the aforesaid devotional acts just as this foolish man
would not be cured of the snakebite by his syrup. Once somebody told Bishr
that a certain rich man was profusely keeping fast and offering prayer. He
replied, "The poor fellow is doing the work of others but has given up his own.
1 Ibid., 3:351-352.
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He was required to feed the hungry and help the poor. Instead, he is forcing
himself to remain hungry and is trying to help himself by offering voluntary
prayers. Along with this, he is also busy in accumulating as much wealth as
possible so as to exclude the poor from it."1
Regarding another delusion from which people generally suffer, Ghazalī says:
There are still others, both among the rich and the poor, who are victims of
self-deception, for they consider it sufficient enough to attend the religious
discourses and sermons. They regularly attend such gatherings and think that
it is propitious to listen to these discourses even without acting on the counsel
of the preachers. These persons are deceiving themselves because the merit
of these sermons lies simply in exhortation to adopt the righteous course.
But if sermons create no urge for virtuous action, they are simply of no value.
Anything used as a means for achieving an end has importance because of
its objective, and if it cannot somehow be helpful in achieving the object it
becomes worthless. But these persons are led astray by the merit of listening to
such discourses, unduly emphasized by certain preachers. Often such listeners
are found in ecstasy or even in a flood of tears during the discourses, but they
never make up their mind to tread the righteous path. If these persons are told
something dreadful, they begin to implore Allah and seek His protection, but
they appear to think that it is all they need to propitiate the Lord. It is nothing
but delusion. Such a person is like a patient who consults a physician simply to
know the prescription but never to regain health. Or he resembles one who is
hungry but cannot fill his belly merely by learning the names of different foods.
Being attentive to preachers and to the details of doctrines and devotional
practices would likewise be of no avail in the life to come unless it makes you
change your life and pattern it so as to inculcate awe and remembrance of
Allah. If sermons do not produce this effect and do not make you weary of
this world, they will be brought as evidence against you in the next. Verily, if
you think that simply listening to these sermons would be enough for your
salvation, you are deceiving yourself.2
Purpose of the Ihya'
Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din is not merely a book of criticism. One of the book's under-
lying objectives is to reform and re-Islamize the Muslim society. Ghazalī really
intended to produce a work that might be self-sufficient not only for the
1 Ibid., 3:352.
2 Ibid.
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education and discipline of the truth seeker but also to produce an adequate
guidebook for educators and preachers, to serve as an encyclopedia of Islamic
sciences, and maybe to be used as a manual of instruction for the Islamic
way of life. He succeeded in making the book a digest of Islamic beliefs and
practices,1 with measures for purifying the soul, disciplining moral conduct,
and cultivating a mystical awareness of the truth. The most striking aspect
of the book is its effectiveness. Many of us have likely shared the experience
of Shiblī Nu manī, who said that every word of this book has a magnetic
effect on its reader; it takes hold of him and pulls on the heartstrings. This
overwhelming effect of the Ihya' is perhaps because it was written by Ghazalī
at a time when he was himself filled and deeply impressed with a feeling of
higher awakening.2
The inner experience of unseen realities that give insight into the higher
realms, through which Ghazali had himself passed and which is reflected in
the Ihya', sometimes leaves readers disenchanted with the world. The book
creates an extreme longing for solitude and asceticism, contemplation and
devotion, and produces an awe and reverence of Allah peculiar to the mystic
way of life that is often harmful for the health. The writer of these pages has
himself experienced these feelings while going through the Ihya' for the
compilation of this book. It is perhaps for this reason that many spiritual
guides do not advise the novice to go through the Ihya' in the initial stages.
Perfect moderation and temperance can indeed be had only through the
study of the hadith and the biography of the Prophet @ and the company
of a religious teacher who has modeled his life in accordance with the teach-
ings of the Shari'a.
Ethical Philosophy of Ghazalī
Besides being an eminent, jurist, theologian, and a mystic, Ghazāli was also
a proponent of Islamic ethics. His studies in ethical philosophy fathom
the mysteries of mind and heart and exhibit a penetrating insight into the
eternal values of life. In fact, Ghazalī has left such an indelible mark on sub-
sequent thought in the discipline that no study of Islamic ethics and ethical
philosophy can be complete without a mention of Ghazalī and his writings
on the subject.3 The Ihya' is a feat on this subject as well. In it, like a true
1
The fiqh therein is primarily based on the Shafi'i school, the school Ghazali followed.
2 Nu'mānī, Al-Ghazālī, 33.
3 For this, see Muhammad Yusuf Musa, Tarikh al-Akhlaq, 200. See also his Falsafat al-Akhlāq.
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thinker, Ghazalī sets out to examine the innate psychological dispositions
and impulses actuating ethical behavior.
Yearning for Honor
Under the heading "Why man has a natural longing for celebrity (jah) and
why it seldom leaves even the heart of the one given to struggle," Ghazalī
writes in the Ihya',
One must know that in the same way man desires wealth, man also has a deep
craving for celebrity. Just as gold is liked more than silver, even if the two are
of the same value, celebrity claims precedence over riches. As you know, gold
and silver have no attraction in themselves, for these can neither satisfy hunger
or thirst, nor be worn as garments. These are just as good as any other metal,
but they have an all allure because they serve to satisfy desires held dearer
by man. Similar is the case with celebrity, which serves to win and dominate
the heart of others.
However, even though celebrity and wealth share man's fancy equally,
the former claims precedence over the other for multiple reasons, of which
three stand out. The first is that celebrity can be a means for attaining riches,
while wealth may not help in commanding the respect of others. Anybody
winning the hearts of others wins their service and possessions too, as people
are always desirous of making presentations to those whom they love and
revere. On the other hand, if an undistinguished common man somehow
gets hold of a treasure, he cannot win the respect of others merely by getting
rich. Celebrity is thus held dearer than wealth. Another obvious reason is that
there is always a danger of losing wealth. It can be stolen or taken away forc-
ibly. Kings and tyrants can confiscate it, and it needs to be guarded and kept
in strongboxes and safe rooms. But once a man wins another's heart, there is
no danger of losing it to thieves, robbers, or plunderers. It is indeed the best-
guarded treasure. The treasure of the heart is immune from all such dangers.
The third reason for holding celebrity dearer is that it goes on increasing by
itself without any effort. When people begin to venerate anyone on account of
his knowledge or virtuous actions, they sing his praise and thereby widen the
circle of his followers. It is thus only natural that everybody should hanker after
fame and honor. When fame spreads to other towns and lands, the number of
admirers increases with it. As against this, wealth does not increase by itself.
These are the manifest reasons for giving preference to celebrity over wealth.
One can also find many other reasons for it.
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Now, it can be argued that if what I have explained here is correct, a man
should like to have riches or celebrity only to the extent of fulfilling his desires
or meeting his wants, for he holds these things dear only for achieving such
ends. But the fact is that the covetousness of man knows no bounds, and he
goes on accumulating possessions and riches till the limits of his needs are left
far behind and he presents the spectacle of one alluded to in the hadith which
says, "If a man had two valleys filled with gold, he would long for the third."
Similarly, a man is always anxious that his celebrity should go on increasing
till his fame reaches far-off lands, even if he knows that he will never step foot
in those countries and meet their inhabitants.
The answer to the question posed earlier is that, in truth, love of celebrity
produces an intoxication that can hardly be eradicated. There are two reasons
for this. One is manifest and can be perceived by everyone. But the other one,
related to a peculiar trait of the human self, is so subtle and latent that it would
be difficult even for the most intelligent to grasp it fully. It can be understood
only by those who are endowed by the brilliance of mind and have a deep
insight into the psychological nature of man.
The first of the two causes is that man always feels an innate uneasiness,
beset by fears and doubts regarding what he holds dear, and accordingly wants
to ward off all dangers from it, whether real or imaginary. As a poet says, "To
fall in love is to fall in a thousand anxieties." Man is never satisfied, no mat-
ter what provisions he has made to meet his necessities. The doubt that he
might later lose his possessions constantly assails his heart and makes him
sad and anxious. This anxiety can be removed only if he gets something to
substitute for the possessions he fears to lose. Again on account of his self-love
and eagerness for long life, he overestimates his necessities for the future and
wants adequate resources to counterbalance the imaginary threats to his things.
He is always worried about the supposed hazards that might make him lose
what he has. The only effective remedy he can think of against these risks is to
amass so great a stock of possessions that if he somehow loses a part of it, he
may be able to manage easily with what remains. Doubt and fear about future
security never allow him to be content with his existing belongings, and he
yields to the desire of possessing the fortunes of the entire world. The Prophet
of Islam @ has very rightly said that the longing for two things, knowledge
and wealth, is never satisfied. The desire for celebrity, or winning the hearts
of men, is insatiable for precisely the same reason.
The other reason, and the more cogent, is that the spirit (ruh) is a command
by Allāh. The Qur'an says, "They will ask you concerning the spirit. Say: The
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spirit is by command of my Lord" (Q 17:85). "By command of [the] Lord"
means that it is a secret that can be experienced by the illuminated masters
through spiritual visions but cannot be divulged. The Prophet of Islam too
did not disclose the reality of the spirit, but without going into its reality, one
can find out that the heart of man has a fourfold predisposition. The first is a
carnal inclination toward eating, drinking, sexual intercourse, etc. The second
is what may be called a violent tendency toward killing, injuring, and hurting
others. The third element of human nature is the devilish inclination toward
deceit and fraud. Along with these, there is then a fourth relating to the godly
nature of man, which seeks expression in divine attributes like beneficence,
dignity, grandeur, respect, and glory. The heart of man has numerous similar
predispositions that we cannot go into in any detail here; but as stated, one of
the important inclinations of the heart, owing to the spirit being a command
by the Lord, pertains to the quality of perfection. And what is this perfection?
It consists of being unrivaled in perfection and owning an existence not
dependent on another for anything.
Man is thus naturally inclined to perfection since it is a divine quality, a
quality that does not admit of any peer or rival, for that would really consti-
tute a defect in perfection. The perfection of the sun lies in that it is the only
sun. Likewise, the perfection of being is enjoyed by Allah Almighty alone,
for there is no perfect being besides Him. Whatever exists besides Him is
simply His creation and cannot exist on its own. Thus, in truth, nothing exists
without Allah, for sharing any quality with Him suggests an equal to Allah
Almighty, which would be a defect in His unrivaled perfection. Just as the sun
illuminates everything in this world without losing its perfection, Allah also
bestows existence upon everything. It is on Him that depends the existence
of everything in this universe. Unrivaled perfection is thus a divine attribute
to which man has a natural yearning. Some mystics have observed that in the
recesses of the heart, everyone nourishes the same feeling that found expres-
sion from Pharaoh when he said, "I am your Lord, Most high" (Q 79:24). It is
for this reason that man finds it more pleasing to become an object of homage
and reverence than to become himself a devotee or a worshipper. This is the
natural human instinct alluded to in the divine revelation that says the "spirit
is by command of My Lord."
Man cannot, however, attain absolute or unrivaled perfection, but his desire
for it persists because he derives some satisfaction from the chase. Absolute
perfection is the end and not the means of achieving something else. The
fact is that every man adores his self as well as its absolute perfection, and
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he shudders at the idea of death simply because he sees in it the ruin of his
self and of its perfection. Absolute perfection for the self demands complete
independence from everything while at the same time requiring the utter
dependency of all other things on it. If that is not possible, the next most
desirable course is to dominate others. Man, desiring complete perfection, has
thus a natural inclination toward dominance over others. Domination over
others is gratifying to the self and a means of achieving perfection. It consists
of the capacity to be effective and the ability to make others change their will.
Accordingly, man wants to dominate all beings, but the latter category includes
such beings as do not change according to the will of man- as, for instance,
the Supreme Being and His attributes.
There is another category of beings that undergo change, though not in
conformity with human desire. These are the heavens, planets, angels, jinn,
devils, mountains, oceans, and the like. The beings falling in the third category,
such as land, its elements, minerals, plants, animals, and also the hearts of men,
are liable to change under the influence of human will. Now, because the first
two categories fall outside the scope of human influence, man endeavors to
acquire knowledge of these things; for acquiring the knowledge of anything
is a means of gaining domination over it. You see the keenness of some people
to possess insight into the reality of the nature and attributes of Allah, or that
of the angels, heavens, planets, stars, oceans, and their wonders. This is also
a way of acquiring some domination over them. You would have seen that if
one cannot himself manufacture something that catches his fascination, he
wants at least to know how it has been made, as this gives him some satisfac-
tion. A man who cannot himself invent a game like chess or any other device,
wants at least to know how it is played or used and how it was invented. Not
knowing vexes him and knowing entices him; he wishes to make up for some
of his own deficiency through his knowledge.
Of the earthly things over which man desires dominance in order to use
them according to his wishes, there are two subdivisions: those pertaining to
the body and those pertaining to the spirit. The first comprises possessions
and belongings, wealth and resources over which man wants complete control.
He wants complete authority to use these in whatever way he desires because
authority is necessary for perfection. Dominance is one of the attributes of
Allah reflecting His qualities of lordship. Man has a natural inclination to hold
these dear to his heart no matter whether he ever needs them for meeting his
personal requirements or not. Similarly, man wants to possess slaves who will
be under his domination, or to force even free people to accept his dominance
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and thereby command their homage and service. It is not necessary that he
always win over their hearts, as mostly, they have no love or respect for him
in their hearts. However, domination by force is often as effective as winning
over the heart, because he finds pleasure in this control. It is therefore natural
that he sometimes desires to achieve dominance through brute force because
it expresses his authority over others-a feeling to which man is predisposed.
The most precious of all earthly possessions falling under the second
category, then, is dominating and winning over the hearts of men. The per-
fection of domination lies in the authority one exercises over the hearts of
others who are ever willing to comply with his bidding. The hearts of men are
most easily dominated by engendering the love and reverence accompany-
ing the conviction that the one adored possesses the most perfect qualities.
For perfection of qualities is a divine attribute to which man has an inherent
inclination. The heart of man, therefore, desires to attain perfection either
through knowledge or authority. Wealth and celebrity, the two potent means
of acquiring this authority, are cherished in the heart of man. And because
knowledge and authority are limitless, man endeavors to gain knowledge of
everything and command authority over all that exists. As the Prophet has
suggested, the dissatisfaction of the learned and the wealthy and the desire of
man for domination over things beyond his control goes on, ever increasing.1
Introspection and Self-Critique
The most effective part of the Ihya' is where Ghazali expounds the signifi-
cance of purifying one's own soul and reforming one's morals for achieving
blessedness. His exposition covers the fleeting nature of the terrestrial world,
eternity of the world to come, significance of faith and righteous action,
cleansing of the spirit, and eradication of the vices of heart, which he deems
to be the inner bases of all grossness in human conduct. Ghazali's graphic
description of vice and virtue and his exhortation to adopt the course leading
to salvation bear the mark of an eloquent speaker, a prudent mentor, and a
philosopher with an incisiveness of intellect and a penetrating insight into
the inner recesses of the human soul, mind, and spirit. He is fully aware of
the different types of human weaknesses and delineates each of these, sets
forth their causes, and traces their origin, and thereafter proceeds to suggest
measures for subjugating the earthly appetites and impulses out of which
these vices are born. His treatment of ethical issues does not amount to a
1 Ihya', 3:241-244 (summarized).
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mere moralizing discourse. His essays are inspiring, employing rich and
expressive language that has since cast its spell over hundreds of thousands
of people and reformed their lives. The fourth section of the book sets out a
critique of the self (nafs) and a method of self-examination. He tells us how
one should assess one's own vices and inclination toward them and prepare
for the life to come.
Under the heading "Self-censure," Ghazāli writes:
O Self! Is it the right course that when a Jew [or a person of any religion]
tells you that a certain thing is injurious for your health, you abandon it and
prefer to curb your desire, but completely disregard the commands of divine
revelation and the directives of the prophets, whose truthfulness is established
by miracles? It is not surprising that you attach more weight to the opinion of
that Jew even as he is liable to form an erroneous opinion on account of his
limited knowledge or wisdom? You throw away your garment without the
slightest hesitation if even a child informs you that a scorpion has got into
your clothes. Is it that the tidings of the prophets, scholars, saints, and mentors
about the life to come, about Hell and its blazing fire, its torments, its bitter
thorny fruits, its scorpions and reptiles, do not deserve even as much credence
as the information given by a child? Or is it that the reptiles of Hellfire shall
cause you smaller pain than the sting of an earthly scorpion that gives you
trouble for a day or less? This is certainly not the way dictated by prudence. If
the beasts were to know of your foolishness, they would laugh at you.
O Self! You know what is to happen after death and have faith also in
the life to come, but you still refuse to act righteously and wish to ignore the
Hereafter. Death is marking time to come upon you and impound your soul
without any warning. Even if a hundred years were given, one shall never reach
the destination if one discontinues the journey to bask in the sunshine. And
what do you think of a man who goes abroad for acquiring knowledge but
continues to postpone his studies in the hope that he would learn everything
within the last few months before returning home? You would doubtless laugh
at this man for hoping to acquire all knowledge and wisdom in such a short
time, as you would also at a man who cherishes a desire to be appointed as a
jurist without studying law. If you have presumed that the endeavors made
in old age are more fruitful, how do you think that this is not the last day of
your life? Why do you not then address yourself to the task now? Has Allah
told you that He would allow you some more time to make preparations for
your salvation? If not, then what is preventing you from making haste and
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prompting you to postpone your decision indefinitely? There is no other
reason save that you find it difficult to subjugate your impulses and earthly
desires, for that would involve an effort on your part.
Do you then wait for the day when it will be made easier for every man
to conquer his desires? Verily, such a day shall never come because Allah
has not created it. Paradise, surrounded as it is by things unpleasant and
unwelcome, shall never be agreeable to the indolent self that always wants
to postpone today's work to tomorrow. Do you know how many tomorrows
have been turned into yesterday? Will it not be even harder to accomplish
tomorrow what cannot be done today? Take, for instance, the urge for sex. If
uncurbed today, it cannot be stopped tomorrow, or else it is like a tree that a
man wants to uproot but, being unsuccessful in his attempt, postpones for the
future. This man knows well that with the passage of time, the tree will take
root more firmly, while he will become older and grow weaker. Obviously,
this man would not be able to accomplish in old age what he could not do in
the prime of youth. To put a bridle on the passions is really as difficult and
troublesome as to train a wolf.
O Self! You appear not to know these facts of common experience but
claim to be wise and prudent. Verily, there appears to be none more foolish
than you. Your passions, you might plead, do not allow you to be steadfast in
virtue, while troubles and afflictions make you abandon the path of patience.
If this is correct, why do you not seek the pleasure that is everlasting, pure,
and sublime, and which can be had in the celestial abode of bliss alone. If you
are a slave of your desires and mad after pleasure, it is even more desirable for
you to curb your fleeting predilections, for sometimes one morsel taken by
a man prevents him from taking his food for days on end. Suppose a patient
has been directed by his physician not to take cold water for three days so
that he might recover from illness. Tell me, what does your intellect dictate?
Should this man abstain from cold drink for three days to regain his health,
or should he disregard the result and satisfy his craving for cold water? Do
you not know that the pitifully short duration of life vouchsafed to you in
this transient world, as compared with the eternal life in the Hereafter, is even
more short-lived than the three days of that patient as compared with the rest
of his life? Is it that the endurance required for controlling earthly passions is
more agonising than the torments of indefinite duration in different portals of
Hellfire? How would you be able to put up with that everlasting torture when
you find it so distasteful to bear this temporary unpleasantness?
I find that you are unable to restrain yourself just for two reasons. The
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first of these is a sort of concealed infidelity, while the other is nothing but
stupidity. Your concealed infidelity is a lack of conviction about the Day of
Judgement and about recompense of your deeds in the world to come. Your
stupidity, on the other hand, makes you oblivious to the designs of Allah and
asks you to depend on His mercy while disregarding that the benefits con-
ferred on the obstinate sinners are really snares to trap them. Still, you would
not trust His beneficence for a piece of bread or a handful of grain nor follow
even the express commands He has enjoined. The Prophet
said, "Prudent
is he who resorts to self-criticism and endeavors to prepare for the life after
death, while foolish is he who allows himself to take after the ways of whim
and still remain hopeful of divine favor." Alas, you should have been aware of
the snare of your passions and should not have allowed yourself to be duped
by Satan. You have been asked to take care of yourself and be charitable unto
you. You should not waste the sojourn of your life on this transient world.
If you lose a moment of this life, you will lose a substantial portion of your
fortune in the Hereafter that can never be regained. Therefore, in preparation
for the Hereafter, take advantage of your health before your infirmity; of your
free time before you preoccupation; of your wealth before your poverty; of
your youthful zest before old age saps your strength; and of your life before
death overtakes you.
Your endeavor should be commensurate with the everlasting life to
come. Do you not, O self, make preparations for the winter season? Do you
disregard collecting necessary provisions for it or ignore the winter season in
the vain hope of somehow getting through it? Do you think that the intense
cold of Hell would be less painful than the wintry cold of this world? Do
you hope to attain salvation without making any effort for it? You ought to
know that you cannot save yourself from the blazing fire of Hell without
the protection of faith and of submission to the commandments of Allah,
exactly in the same way you require warm clothes and heat for protection
against the winter cold. It is simply a blessing and a mercy from your Lord
that He has informed you how to save yourself from the torments of Hellfire
and also provided you with the means for it. It is a divine dispensation that
if He creates winter, He also provides heat for you and lets you know how
to produce it from flint so that you may be able to protect yourself from the
cold. The Lord needs your prayers and supplications as much as He stands
in need of your producing fire or weaving woolen cloth. It is really you who
need these, not Allah Almighty; for you have to submit to the will of Allah
for your own salvation. The decision of Allah is manifest: "Whoso does right,
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it is for his soul, and whoso does wrong, it is against it. And afterwards unto
your Lord you will be brought back" (Q 45:15). Woe be to you, O self! Come
out of the shroud of your own ignorance and know that your recompense
shall be exactly what you earn in this world; for Allah Almighty has already
ordained thus: "Your creation and your resurrection are only as of a single
soul. Lo! Allah is the Hearer, the Knower" (Q 31:28), "As we began the first
creation, We shall repeat it" (Q 21:104), and "As He brought you into being,
so shall you return" (Q 7:29).1
Critics of the Ihya'
Ibn Taymiyya's verdict on the Ihya' is that it is, on the whole, a well-written
book with an elegant style: "The majority of what he says in the Ihya' is
excellent."> At the same time, he criticized the work on four counts. The
first is that Ghazali's thought shows definite traces of Greek philosophy. Ibn
Taymiyya maintains that in his delineation of the oneness of Allah, prophecy,
and the final recompense, numerous concepts held by the philosophers crept
in. Even if Ghazalī opposed them, some of their ideas are still be noticeable
in his work. Ibn Taymiyya was emphatically opposed to philosophy, so it
is no surprise that he deemed some of Ghazali's writings untenable from a
purely religious point of view.
The second grounds for criticism of the Ihya' is that Ghazalī expounds
certain theological issues that, to Ibn Taymiyya, are not fully in keeping with
the spirit of the Qur'an and the Sunna. The third is that the book contains
some extreme and erroneous opinions of the mystics. The fourth, he says, is
that the Ihya' contains many weak and even fabricated narrations.3 Despite
these shortcomings, Ibn Taymiyya writes about the Ihya':
Notwithstanding these defects, the Ihya' contains teachings of numerous illu-
minated guides and mystics and their experiences in regard to self-purification
and intuitive knowledge that conform with the Qur'an and the Sunna, and
can thus be acceptable from a theological point of view. It is for this reason
that scholars hold different opinions about the Ihya' and all of them are not
opposed to it.4
Ibn al-Jawzī also criticized Ghazalī for using inauthentic and weak hadiths.
1
Ibid., 4:356-358.
2 Fatāwa Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyya, 2:194.
3 Ibid., Șiddīq Hasan Khan, Al-Tāj al-Mukallal, 388.
4 Fatāwā Shaykh al-Islam, 2:194.
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Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī
He is of the opinion that this was because Ghazali was not a hadith scholar.1
Hafiz Zayn al-Din al-'Iraqi later collected all the hadith mentioned in the
Ihya' and classified them according to the accepted norms and examined
the authenticity of each narration. Ibn al-Jawzī has also pointed out certain
mistakes made by Ghazalī in the historical events he mentions in the Ihya'.
This indicates that Ghazali did not have the opportunity to study history
and hadith in detail.2
Ibn al-Jawzī maintained that Ghazalī mentioned several examples of mys-
tics or methods used by them for struggle and self-purification that cannot be
held permissible under the Shari'a, much less recommended to people.3 But
he acknowledged the effectiveness of the Ihya' and the valuable contribution
it has made to subsequent Islamic thought. He has also summarized the Ihya'
in a book entitled Minhaj al-Qasidin (Path of the Truth Seekers), in which
he removed the portions he deemed objectionable. This work of Ibn al-Jawzī,
however, lacks the inspiration and effectiveness so characteristic of the Ihya'.
Ghazalī and Theology ('Ilm al-Kalam)
A man of Ghazali's outstanding intellectual gifts could not continue to tread
the beaten path of earlier theologians, nor could he be content with the posi-
tion of a mere commentator. Unfortunately, the science of theology, which
had been developed for the defense of religion and which had to keep itself
abreast of current developments in other branches of learning, had lost its
vigor by the end of the fourth/tenth century. The Ash aris of the time had
taken the path of rigid dogmatism, insisting on the acceptance of not simply
their tenets and beliefs but also the canons devised by Imam Ash'arī and
'Allāma Abū Bakr al-Bāqillanī without the slightest modification or improve-
ment. They considered it heretical to employ a logical syllogism not used by
the earlier teachers of their school for the defense of religion.
Ghazalī pressed his knowledge of philosophy for upholding fundamen-
tal religious precepts and devised new proofs and premises for the rational
exposition of these matters that were more effective than the arguments
of the Ash'arīs. On matters like the divine attributes, prophecy, miracles,
religious practices, punishment and reward in the Hereafter, and the Day of
Judgment, he brought forth entirely new arguments, more convincing and
satisfying to the common mind, than those employed by his predecessors.
1 Ibn al-Jawzī, Al-Muntazam, 9:169-170.
2 Ibid., 170.
3 Ibid.
153

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
He infused the old Ash'arī school with new blood. The Ash aris should have
been thankful to Ghazalī for the revival of their methodology. But because
Ghazalī's methodology was somewhat different and he held slightly divergent
views from Ash arī and other eminent scholars of that school on several issues,
many ardent Ash arīs viewed Ghazali's thoughts with suspicion. Some zealous
Ash'aris even accused Ghazalī of breaking away from orthodoxy and adopting
heretical tenets. After the compilation of the Ihya', the Ash'arīs became so
critical of Ghazalī that one of his friends wrote a letter to call his attention
to the matter. Ghazali explained the position in some detail in a short book
called Faysal al-Tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa 'l-Zandaqa (The Definitive Criterion
between Islam and Heresy). He writes in it:
Dear brother: A group of people envious of me is busy censuring my writings,
for, in their opinion, I have expounded views contrary to those held by the
great theologians. They think that even the slightest deviation from Ash'arī's
tenets is blasphemous. I know that you are unhappy about it, but, my dear
friend, you ought to observe patience in this matter. How can I claim immunity
from the jealousy of these people when even the Prophet of Islam
was not
spared by these elements. ... He is simply a blind follower of illiberal formal-
ism who views heretical any disagreement with the Ash'arīs, the Mu'tazilīs,
the Hanbalis, or, for that matter, any other sect. It is no use trying to waste
your time satisfying them.
In fact, their own pleas against one another are sufficient to confute
them. There are numerous differences in the various theological schools, and
many of them differ from the Ash arīs. Therefore, if anybody claims that it
is incumbent to follow the Ash arī tenets to the last detail, or that even the
slightest deviation from those doctrines is unsanctified, he ought to be asked
how he deems the Ash aris to be the sole repository of truth. If it is so, would
he be willing to declare Bāqillanī an apostate? Bāqillānī differed from Imām
Ash'arī on the attribute of everlastingness (baqa'), for he denied the existence
of such an attribute extraneous to the essence of Allah. But the question is,
Why should Baqillanī at all be condemned as an apostate for opposing Ash arī?
Why should not the same charge be leveled against Ash arī? Why should truth
be considered the monopoly of any one person? If their reply is that Ash arī
preceded Bāqillanī, then did not the Mu'tazilis precede Ash arī, and should
they not therefore be deemed to be on the right path? If it is claimed that
righteousness depends on profound knowledge and piety, then what would
be the criteria for judging the comparative merits of the expounders of dif-
154

Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī
ferent schools? If Baqillanī was allowed to differ from Ash arī, why should
those after him be debarred from this right, and why should any particular
person be accorded special treatment in this matter?1
Personal experience and a comprehensive insight into the speculative as well
as religious sciences led Ghazalī to the conclusion that scholastic theology
has only limited utility that may sometimes be even harmful in particular
cases. He ultimately came to regard theology as a medicine that should not be
administered to healthy people who did not need it. Sufficient nourishment
could be provided amply through the Qur'an. He maintained that the Qur'an
contained a superior logic, as its arguments are quite satisfying to people
with common sense. In his last book, Iljām al-Awāmm 'an 'Ilm al-Kalām (The
Restraining of the Laity from the Science of Theology), Ghazalī observes:
The Qur'anic arguments are like food that provides nourishment to everyone,
while the logical system built up by the theologians is similar to a medicine
that can be administered profitably only to a few and may even have harmful
effects for others not requiring it. The Qur'anic reasoning resembles water that
can be taken both by the weak child and the robust youth, while theological
argumentation is like a rich food that provides nourishment to the latter but
is indigestible and even harmful to the former.2
Continuing on the evil effects of dialectics, he writes:
The proof that people have been harmed by polemical theology is clear through
observation and experience and through the rise of many evils that were not
to be found during the times of the Prophet's Companions.3
Ghazalī's Refusal to Return to Baghdad
Ghazalī was prevailed upon by Fakhr al-Mulk, the son of Nizam al-Mulk, who
had become vizier to the Seljuq prince Sanjar, to return to Nishapur in the
month of Dhu'l-Qa'da 499/1106, and resume the chief professorship at the
Nizāmiyya College. But Fakhr al-Mulk was assassinated in the beginning of
500/1107 by a Bāținī emissary, and Ghazalī abandoned teaching shortly there-
after. He returned to his native town of Tūs and founded a small madrasa and
spiritual retreat for the teaching of his local disciples and their religious life.
The Seljuq sultan Muhammad appointed Ahmad I, the elder son of Nizam
1 Ghazālī, Faysal al-Tafriqa, 6-8, 11-14.
2
Ghazālī, Iljām al-Awāmm, 20.
3 Ibid.
155

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
al-Mulk, as his vizier in 500/1107, who again requested Ghazalī to resume his
post at the Nizamiyya College, which had been filled only provisionally. There
was in fact hardly anyone in the world of Islam who could replace Ghazali.
The Nizamiyya College at Baghdad was the adornment of the Abbasid
Caliphate and Baghdad's medal of honor. Everyone felt the loss suffered by
the Nizāmiyya on account of Ghazali's retirement and was anxious for his
return to teaching. Nizam al-Mulk (Qiwam al-Din), the grand vizier to the
Seljuq king, himself wrote a letter to Ghazalī expressing the Abbasid caliph's
desire that he return to Baghdad. In this letter he wrote:
I solicited the orders of the caliph in this matter, but these were not granted
until Sadr al-Din1 took it upon himself that the wishes of the caliph be com-
municated by him personally to the Most Noble Master, Adornment of the
Faith, Proof of Islam, Unique One of the Time (Khwājā-i Ajall, Zayn al-Din,
Hujjat al-Islam, Farīd al-Zamān), Abū Hāmid Muhammad al-Ghazālī, who
is peerless and to whom everyone looks for guidance.2
In order to impress upon him that all the courtiers and the chiefs of the
caliphate were anxiously awaiting Ghazali's return, all the high officials of
the caliph's court signed the letter. In yet another letter to him, Ahmad the
son of Nizam al-Mulk wrote, "Though scholars would go to the place where
you happen to be present to acquire knowledge from you, it appears reason-
able that you should choose for your residence a place which is not only the
metropolis of the Islamic world but is also easily accessible from all parts of
the empire. And such a place is obviously Baghdad."
In reply to the royal edicts and the letters from his well-wishers, Ghazalī
sent a long reply giving his reasons for not returning to his teaching post
in Baghdad. He pleaded that a hundred and fifty students receiving educa-
tion under him in Tūs would find it extremely difficult to accompany him
all the way to Baghdad. His family, which had not been with him before in
Baghdad, would have to face unnecessary hardship if he left Țūs again. He
also said that in Baghdad it would not be possible for him to remain uncon-
cerned with the polemics and debates that had become the prevailing taste
of court life, while he had taken a vow at the Station of Ibrahim (Maqām
Ibrahim) in Makka that he would never enter into such futile controversies.
1 Şadr al-Din Muhammad, the grandson of Nizam al-Mulk, was a vizier of the Seljuq prince
Sanjar, in whose dominion lay Țūs, Ghazāli's native city.
2 Nu mānī, Al-Ghazālī, 27.
156

Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī
Other reasons he gave were that he did not like to visit the caliph nor accept
any remuneration from the caliphate, but it would be difficult for him to do
without either of these in Baghdad, as he did not possess any landed property
in the capital that could support his family. The Abbasid caliph as well as the
Seljuq sultan tried their best to persuade Ghazalī to return to Baghdad, but
he turned down their requests.1
Ghazāli's Death
Ghazalī spent the rest of his life like a student. He had not been able to pay
as much attention to hadith as he had to the sacred and secular sciences.
He tried, therefore, to recover the shortfall by studying the Sahih works of
Bukhari and Muslim under a reputed hadith scholar of the time, Hafiz Amr
ibn Abī'l-Hasan al-Rawasī, under whom he even obtained authorization for
the two books. As the historians report, he spent most of his time during this
period in the study of hadith. One of his biographers, Ibn 'Asākir, records:
During the last days of his life, Ghazali addressed himself wholeheartedly to
the study of hadith. During this period he preferred the company of religious
scholars and studied the Sahih of Bukhari and Muslim, which are deemed to
be the most authentic collection of the Sunna.2
Ghazalī wrote another book on legal theory, the Mustasfa, just a year or so
before he died. This work is still considered one of the three principle works
on the subject.3 Scholars have valued it highly and it was Ghazāli's final work.
Ghazālī died at Țabarān on 14 Jūmādā '1-Ukhrā 505 (18 December 1111)
at the age of fifty-five. Ibn al-Jawzī has given a vivid description of Ghazāli's
death, as told by Ahmad al-Ghazalī, who was an eyewitness to his brother's
remarkable death:
It was a Monday. He got up in the morning, made his ablution, and performed
the dawn prayers. He then asked to bring his shroud. Taking it he kissed it and
laid it on his eyes with the words, "I submit to the command of my Master."
Then he stretched out his feet in the direction of Ka'ba. When people saw him,
he had already passed away.4
1
Ibid., 21.
2 Tabyīn, 296.
3 The other two being the Mu'tamad of Abu '1-Husayn al-Basri and the Burhan of Imam
al-Haramayn al-Juwaynī.
4 Zabīdī, Ithaf al-Sādat al-Muttaqīn, 11-12.
157

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
Two Outstanding Qualities of Ghazāli
Immaculate sincerity and indomitable courage are the two most impressive
qualities of Ghazāli that have been acknowledged by his friends and foes. His
writings breathe an almost tragic urgency into his message. Ibn Taymiyya
differed with Ghazalī on many Issues, but he had absolutely no doubt of
the sincerity of Ghazali's purpose. The reason behind the effectiveness and
the immense popularity of Ghazali's work was his earnestness and selfless
devotion to the truth, which made him abandon the most coveted post at the
Nizāmiyya College, led him to spend a decade in seclusion and contemplation,
and, finally, gave him the courage to turn down the invitations of emperors
and resist the temptations of riches, honor, and glory. He has written that
the evil that comes out last from the heart of a righteous man is the love of
celebrity. Ghazalī's life before his death bears witness to the fact that he had
attained this stage of self-purification and moral rectitude.
Ghazalī was fired with an adventurous spirit and a lofty idealism that
enabled him to set his heart upon an ever higher objective. His work in
jurisprudence and legal theory was a beacon of light for the jurists of many
centuries to come. Contrary to the normal pattern of education in Ghazāli's
time, he studied secular sciences after acquiring mastery over sacred learn-
ing. He engaged himself in intensive study of the logic and philosophy of the
times and soon acquired, according to Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi, such proficiency
in these subjects that he challenged them in a way that left their structure
shaking for a hundred years.
His spiritual efforts in search of the truth were in no way meaner than
his accomplishments in the disciplines of the mind. To purify the self and
gain spiritual strength, he turned to the path of mysticism under a reputed
spiritual mentor of the time, Shaykh Abū 'Alī al-Farmadī (d. 477/1084).1 He
abandoned everything he had, spent a decade in solitude and contemplation,
and was favored with spiritual illumination.
Ghazāli's endeavors for the revival and revivification of Islam were not
limited to the reformation of Muslim society alone. Shiblī Nu'manī has given
an account of his efforts to establish a truly Islamic state In Spain. He says:
Ghazalī was not satisfied with the existing Muslim states that had degenerated
into secular governments. He held the view that unless a new state was estab-
1 Abū Alī Fadl ibn Muhammad al-Farmadī was a prominent mystic and preacher from Țūs.
He is found in the chain of the Naqshbandī Mujaddidī order, in between Abū 'l-Qasim ibn 'Alī
al-Gurgānī (450/1058) and Khwājā Yūsuf al-Hamadānī (535/1141).
158

Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī
lished in accordance with the Islamic principles of polity, Muslim society could
not be re-Islamized. He could not, however, spare time for this stupendous
task from his preoccupations of contemplation and struggle, purification of
self, and moral rectification. However, after Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din was brought
to light and its copies were taken to Spain in 501/1107, the king, Ali ibn Yusuf
ibn Tashfin ordered them burned.1 Ghazalī sadly learned of the incident,
but shortly thereafter a young man, Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah ibn Tūmart
by name, arrived from Spain to study under him.2 Muhammad came from a
distinguished family, reputed for its long record of eminent warriors. While
he was studying under Ghazalī, he had made up his mind, either of his own
accord or, most likely, under Ghazali's influence, to overthrow 'Ali ibn Yusuf
in order to set up a truly Islamic state in Spain. Although Ghazali agreed with
him, he asked Muhammad about the means as well as the help he hoped to
muster in his venture. Having satisfied himself about the project, Ghazāli
allowed Muhammad to proceed with his undertaking. In regard to Ghazāli's
blessing for Muhammad's enterprise, Ibn Khaldun says, "As people are gener-
ally aware, [Muhammad] met Ghazalī and consulted him about his venture.
Ghazalī approved of his suggestion since Islam had grown weak in the whole
world and there was no king who could unite the entire Umma for upholding
the cause of Islam. However, Ghazali first inquired from Muhammad about the
means he had for organizing the uprising and bringing it to a successful end.
The kingdom established by Muhammad ibn 'Abdillah ibn Tūmart, known
as the Almohads, or Muwahhidun, lasted for a long time. The reign of 'Ali
ibn Yusuf ibn Tashfin, which was notorious for its widespread tyranny, had
1 Ithaf al-Sāda, 1:10.
2 Ibn al-Subkī has given some interesting details about Muhammad in Țabagāt al-Shāfi'iyya.
He says that Muhammad Ibn 'Abdillah was from West Africa. In his youth he first studied locally
and then travelled to the East to study jurisprudence and theology. Noted for his simplicity, he
strictly followed the dictates of the Shari'a. Returning to Egypt after completing his education, he
began preaching to the people to enjoin the right and forbid the wrong. However, he earned the
hostility of the local population because of his uncompromising attitude and was eventually turned
out. He then returned to his native land via Alexandria. He arrived In Mahdiyya in 505/1111 and
began to preach reform among the Berber tribes. He went to Bajaya and then to Marrakesh on
his errand, where he came into conflict with the members of the royal family. 'Ali ibn Yusuf ibn
Tashfin summoned him to his court, where he was asked him to explain the reasons for criticiz-
ing the king. Undaunted by the pomp and glory of the royal court, he replied, "Is not wine sold
freely in this town? Do not people misappropriate the income of the trusts meant for the orphan?"
The king was so effected by his speech that he burst into tears. Muhammad gradually gathered an
enormous following around him and before long formed an extensive kingdom with the help of
the Berber tribe Masmūda (Țabagāt al-Shafi'iyya, 4:71-74)
159

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
encouraged moral laxity among all classes of society. Abduction and rape of
women belonging to respectable families by the king's legionaries had become
a common feature of the day. The royal family, descending from a recently
converted Berber tribe followed a curious custom. Their men always wore
a veil, while their women moved about unrestrained and unveiled. This is
why they were called the "veiled ones" (mulaththamūn).
Muhammad ibn Tūmart, after obtaining power, did not himself ascend
the throne but chose a capable and learned young man by the name of Abd
al-Mu'min who succeeded the last "veiled" king in 540/1146. 'Abd al-Mu'min
and his descendants ruled over the empire strictly in accordance with the
principles that Ghazali had shows preference for. In his book, in the third
section of chapter 3, "About the Berbers," Ibn Khaldun has given an account
of the rule by the Almohads in these words: "During their rule scholars
were held in high esteem, and all the affairs of the state were decided in con-
sultation with them. Justice was made available to the weak and the poor;
tyrannical officials were severely punished; ruffians were held at the leash;
mosques were constructed in royal palaces; the frontier posts were fortified
and strengthened and fresh conquests were made."1
Impact of Ghazāli
In intellectual and spiritual attainments, brilliance of mind, and expansiveness
of knowledge mastered, there have been only a few comparable to Ghazali.
His epoch-making writings provided a source of inspiration to subsequent
generations and anticipated a vigorous intellectual movement. Ghazālī in
fact left such a deep imprint on the pages of Islamic history that his impact
on subsequent Islamic thought has always been acknowledged both by
his admirers and detractors. His writings are still held in high esteem and
profitably studied by those who yearn for purification of the self and mystic
communion with Allãh.
Reformers after Ghazāli
Despite Ghazalī's successful encounter with the scepticism of philosophers
that had threatened to cause spiritual chaos in Islam, the moral and spiritual
disintegration of the masses toward the end of the fifth/eleventh century
had become so widespread that it required a popular movement for the
regeneration of the simplicity and directness of the faith. What the Umma
1 Al-Ghazāli, 116-117.
160