النص المفهرس

Hasan al-Başrī
ing forces to Islam and disbelief to produce hypocrites who might follow the
truth outwardly while secretly opposing it.
During any period of Islamic rule, there is very often a segment of the
population that is incapable of following the tenets of the faith wholeheartedly.
These people profess their belief in Islam, but in the recesses of their hearts
they harbor a lurking doubt about whether Islam is really the sole source of
truth. Such people lack the moral courage to forsake Islam publicly, or per-
haps the benefits they derive from Muslim society or the state prevent them
from renouncing the religion even though they do not possess unflinching
faith. Hence, these remain distracted and irresolute throughout their lives.
Expediency is the norm for such people. In their lack of moral behavior, their
selfishness, their double-dealing, their self-adornment, their heedlessness of
the Hereafter, their timidity before power and authority, and their eagerness
to exploit the poor and the weak, they are the lingering remnants of the
hypocrites of earlier days referred to in the Qur'an.
Indication of Hypocrisy
It is an achievement, as well as a proof of his insight, that Hasan al-Basrī was
aware not only that hypocrisy still existed in the Muslim society, but that it
exerted considerable influence over the public life of the Muslims, especially
among the ruling elite.1
Someone once asked Hasan al-Basrī if hypocrites were still to be found
among the Muslims of his day. His reply was, "If the hypocrites desert the
streets of Basra, you will find it hard to live in the city."2
Hasan meant by this that the majority of the people were those who paid
mere lip service to Islam without allowing its principles to take root in their
1 Among the religious scholars of the later period, Shah Waliyyullah also subscribed to the
view that hypocrisy is found in every age, and that the existence of hypocrites is not a phenomenon
unique to any particular time or place. He believed that hypocrisy is of two types: hypocrisy of
creed and hypocrisy of deed. Because of the cessation of revelation after Allah's Final Messenger
hypocrisy of creed is no longer discernible or is difficult to recognize, Hypocrisy of deed, however,
has been rampant ever since. Speaking of his own time, he says in Al-Fawz al-Kabir, "Seek the
company of the nobility and their associates and attendants if you want to see what hypocrites are
like. You will see that they prefer the wishes of rulers over the wishes of Allah Almighty. Indeed,
to the unprejudiced mind there is no difference between the hypocrites who personally heard the
Messenger yet still practiced hypocrisy and these hypocrites who are born in this age and possess
conclusive knowledge of the Shari'a yet deviate from it and act against it. So too an example of
hypocrisy are those rationalists who harbor many doubts in their hearts and forget the reality of
the Final Abode." See Al-Fawz al-Kabir, 13-14.
2 Firyābī, Șifat al-Nifāq, 68.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
hearts, and without translating its teachings into moral behavior. On another
occasion he remarked, "Glorified be Allah! What hypocrites and self-seeking
persons have come to have the upper hand on this Umma!"1
Hasan al-Basrī was perfectly correct in his estimation of the self-centered
rulers of his time, who were interested least of all in Islam and the Muslims.
His apt characterization of hypocrisy as a canker festering on the body of
the Umma demonstrates the candor of Hasan al-Basri's sermons and his call
for reformation. There were several outstanding teachers among his contem-
poraries, but none could arouse the enthusiastic devotion of the people like
Hasan. His scathing criticism and denunciation of the degenerate state of
society shed light on the spirit and nature of the hypocrisy that had captured
the soul of a large segment of the populace. Hypocrisy was a disease that was
fast taking root in Muslim society.
Hasan described the character, morals, and behavior of the hypocrites,
who could be seen in every walk of life: in the administration, the armed
forces, business, and trade. The prevalent vices of his day were lust for wealth
and power and an utter disregard for the Final Judgement. Hasan devoted
himself to condemning these very evils and caused people to think about
the eternal life after death. With his gift for eloquence, he vividly depicted
the unseen realities which every hypocritical, indolent, and wayward person
wished were buried in oblivion.
Death of Hasan al-Başrī
The spotless sincerity, outstanding piety, and moral and spiritual excellence
of Hasan al-Basri earned him the affection of everyone in Basra. When he
died in 110/728, the entire population of Basra (which was, after the capital
Damascus, the second largest city of the Islamic empire) attended his funeral,
which took place on a Friday. Thus, for the first time in the city's history, its
principal mosque remained empty at the hour of the late afternoon ('asr)
prayer.2
After his death, Hasan's students and followers continued to spread his
message without interruption. They invited people back to the religion, to
unflinching submission to the Almighty, and contemplation of the final
judgment on the Day of Reckoning. Twenty-two years after Hasan's death,
the rule of the mighty Umayyads came to an end, giving rise to the caliphate
of the Abbasids, who shifted the seat of power from Damascus to Baghdad.
1 Ibid., 57.
2 Ibn Khallikān, Wafayāt al-A'yān, 1:355.
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Hasan al-Başrī
Revolts against Tyranny
Along with the efforts directed toward propagation of the faith and moral
and spiritual renewal, repeated attempts were also made to reorganize the
caliphate in accordance with the political law of Islam, and thus end the
monopoly of political authority enjoyed by the Umayyads, and later on by the
Abbasids. Unfortunately, by that time the caliphate had been so entrenched
in racial and tribal loyalties that no call to undo the established order could
be successful unless it could also invoke a noble lineage and had the backing
of a loyal tribal following. We find, therefore, that most of the individuals
who raised the banner of revolt against the Umayyads and Abbasids were
of the Ahl al-Bayt, descendents of the Messenger
who could inspire the
enthusiasm needed to overthrow the despised rulers. Since they represented
the religious drive toward reform and renewal and enjoyed the sympathy and
support of religiously minded people, these political reformers stood a fair
chance of success in their endeavors.
After the massacre at Karbala,1 a number of descendants of the Messenger
of Allah
tried to stage a revolution. Husayn's grandson , Zayd ibn Alī,
attempted to rise against Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik. Imam Abū Hanifa,
founder of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, apologized to Zayd ibn 'Ali
for not being able to join in his expedition, but contributed ten thousand
dirhams to assist Zayd's army.2 Zayd's attempt failed, however, and he was
killed in 122/740.
Thereafter, Muhammad ibn 'Abdilläh al-Mahd (ibn al-Hasan al-Muthannā
ibn al-Hasan ibn 'Ali), a descendant of Hasan known as al-Nafs al-Zakiyya
("the Pure Soul"), raised the banner of revolt in Madina; meanwhile, his
brother, Ibrahim ibn 'Abdillāh, did the same against Caliph Mansūr in Kufa.
Imam Abū Hanifa and Imam Malik, both founders of schools of sacred law,
issued pronouncements supporting the validity of Ibrahim's claim to the
caliphate.3 Imām Abū Hanifa also extended his support to include financial
assistance, and he even dissuaded Hasan ibn Qahtaba, one of Mansur's gener-
als, from fighting against Ibrahim.4
1 Husayn , the grandson of Prophet Muhammad @ and son of Caliph Ali , was mas-
sacred along with his followers on 10 Muharram, 61 (October 10, 680), at Karbala by an Umayyad
detachment for not taking the oath of fealty to Yazid ibn Mu'awiya. The butchery caused a thrill
of horror in the world of Islam.
2 Kardarī, Manāqib al-Imām al-A'zam Abī Hanīfa, 1:55.
3 Imam Malik advised the people of Madina to help Ibrahim even if they had taken the oath
of fealty to Mansur (Ibn al-Athir, Al-Tārīkh al-Kāmil, 5:214).
4 Some historians are of the opinion that the action taken by Caliph Mansur against Imam
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
These efforts, however, were also doomed to failure. Muhammad al-Nafs
al-Zakiyya met a heroic death at Madina on the 15th of Ramadan 145 (7th
December 762), while Ibrahim was killed in the same year at Kufa on the 24th
of Dhu 'l-Qa'da. All these efforts were dead failures owing to the military
strength and well-established rule of the Umayyads and Abbasids. However,
they succeeded in setting a precedent for later generations, encouraging them
to rise in revolt against tyranny and injustice. Instead of submitting to the
inducements of wealth and power, these men preferred to shed the last drop
of their blood for the cause of justice and righteousness. Despite their failures,
the strenuous and ceaseless efforts made by these heroes of Islam have passed
on a torch that will forever keep the spirit of Islam glowing bright. "Among
the Believers are men who have been true to their covenant with Allah. Of
them some have completed their vow, and some still wait: but they have never
changed their determination in the least" (Q 33:23).
Abū Hanifa was not for the imam's refusal to accept the post of chief qadi, but for taking sides with
Ibrāhīm (Manāzir Ahsan Gīlānī. Abū Hanīfa kī Siyāsī Zindagī, 458).
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CHAPTER 3
The Hadith Masters & Jurists
The Abbasids
The Abbasids succeeded the Umayyads not only in temporal power but
in their worldly attitude to life, their hereditary and autocratic system of
government, their exploitation of the public treasury for personal gain, and
their delight in the rounds of pleasure and self-gratification. If there was
any difference between the two empires, it was that during the reign of the
Abbasids, Arabs dominated the high offices of the state, while previously,
under the Umayyads, non-Arabs had the upper hand in administration. The
vices peculiar to the Arabs under the Umayyads had thus given way to the
failings of the other nations.
The dominance of Abbasid rule ran over such an extensive area that Harün
al-Rashid once remarked when he saw a cloud, "Rain wherever you will, for a
portion of the produce of your shower will come back to me." Ibn Khaldun
estimated that the annual income of the Abbasid Caliphate during the reign
of Harun al-Rashid was more than 7,500 qintars (70,150,000 dinars),1 and it
had increased considerably by the time of Ma'mun. The increased wealth and
prosperity caused an influx of people into the capital from the most distant
parts of the empire. These included performers-musicians, singers, poets,
and jesters, who came in pursuit of their vocation of providing amusement
to the elite-and every sort of craftsman and artisan whose wares satisfied
men of more refined taste.2 Historians have preserved an account of the mar-
riage of Ma'mun, which illustrates the wealth and opulence, the pomp and
pageantry, the fascination and pleasure that surrounded the rulers:
Ma'mūn, along with his family, courtiers, nobles, military and civil chiefs,
1 Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, 151.
2 Jāhiz, Kitab al-Hayawān, 3:91, 5:115.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
personal attendants, bodyguards, and the entire army remained as guests of his
prime minister, Hasan ibn Sahl, to whose daughter [Ma'mun] was betrothed.
Hasan entertained the whole company for nineteen days on such a lavish and
gorgeous scale that even the lowliest of the king's party spent those few days
like an aristocrat. The members of the king's household and chief officers of
the state were showered with balls of musk and ambergris, each wrapped in
a paper inscribed with the name of an estate, and they were given a slave, a
team of horses, robes of honor, or some other gift. The recipient then took [the
paper] to the treasurer, who delivered to him the property which had fallen
to his lot. A carpet of surpassing beauty, made of gold thread and inlaid with
pearls and rubies, was unrolled for Ma'mun. As soon as he was seated on it,
precious pearls of unique size and splendor were again showered on his feet,
which made a mesmerizing scene on the resplendent carpet.1
Some Preachers of Baghdad
Amid this life of dissipation and carefree abandon, there were a few inspired
souls who detached themselves from the fascinations and immoral behaviors
of society. These pious ones had given themselves up to the propagation
of the faith, self-purification, education, and spreading religious sciences.
The lifelong object of these teachers was to protect and fortify the spiritual
substance of the community's faith, to forge a link between the Creator and
creation, and to expound and elucidate the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunna.
These men steadfastly upheld the traditions of detachment, fearlessness, and
undaunted championship of the truth. Those in power could neither buy
them nor force them to give up the task they had taken upon themselves. Their
seminaries were true havens of shelter and safety in a tumultuous ocean of
profane materialism, no less vast or productive than the temporal kingdoms
of the day. If the caliphs and their representatives had control over the body
and flesh of their subjects, the writings of these teachers put the souls of the
people back into their own hands.
There are more than a few instances where these men of Allah were able to
hold their own against the most powerful emperors. Caliph Harun al-Rashid
was once on an official visit to Raqqa while the celebrated hadith master
Abdullah ibn al-Mubarak happened to arrive. The entire population of the
city came out to receive him and no one remained to attend the caliph. The
multitude was so great that a large number of people broke their shoes in
1 Shiblī Nu'manī, Al-Ma'mun, 156-57; cf. Wafayāt al-Ayan, 1:258-59.
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The' Hadith Masters & Jurists
the throng. A maidservant of the caliph who had witnessed the procession
from a balcony inquired who the celebrity was. When she was told that he
was a religious scholar, 'Abdullah ibn al-Mubarak of Khurasan, she remarked,
"Kingship belongs indeed to him and not to Hārūn, who dares not go any-
where without guards and attendants."1
Baghdad of the Abbasid period exhibited both of these trends. If, on the
one hand, people of every calling and trade were gathering in the city in
search of riches, amusement, and gratification, there was also, on the other,
a great influx of religious teachers and students from all over the world.
Baghdad had become such a great center of the pious and the learned that
the monographs and histories of the period give the impression that none
save pure and saintly souls lived in Baghdad, and that its confines echoed with
the remembrance and praise of Allah. This atmosphere of piety and religious
fervor was due mainly to Sufyan al-Thawrī (d. 161/778), Fudayl ibn 'Iyad
(d. 187/803), Junayd al-Baghdadi (d. 297/910), Ma rūf al-Karkhī (d. 200/815),
and Bishr al-Hafi (d. 227/841), men who dedicated themselves to the propa-
gation of the faith. The moral rectitude and integrity of these masters, their
kindheartedness and sincerity, detachment, contentment, benevolence, and
readiness to make sacrifices for others endeared them to Muslims and non-
Muslims alike. They upheld and realistically demonstrated Islamic morality,
with the result that countless Jews, Christians, Magians, and Sabians who
came into contact with them embraced Islam.2
Two Urgent Problems
It was truly imperative at this juncture of Islamic history to foster and
strengthen the norms of communal, social, and political conduct of the
Umma, just as its moral and spiritual heritage had been protected and nour-
ished in the past, to ensure that Islam would continue as the guiding light for
future generations. By this time, the Muslim Umma had become the most
powerful and extensive empire in the world, extending over almost the whole
of Asia, parts of Africa, and Spain. New issues were arising as Muslims came
into contact with the peoples of other lands. Problems relating to business
and cultivation, to protection-tax and land revenue, and to the customs and
rites of subjects living in the lands under control had to be addressed in
accordance with the Shari'a, and it was simply impossible to set aside or defer
1
Wafayat al-A'yan, 2:238.
2 For details, see Wafayat al-A'yan, 1:247-51, 323-24; 2:127-28; 3:215-17; 4:319-20.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
any of these questions. The Islamic state was in urgent need of a detailed
and satisfactory answer to each one. Otherwise, it would have been forced to
adopt Roman or Byzantine laws, codes, and regulations for the conduct of its
administrative business. Any complacency on the part of the 'ulama' would
have produced the same confusion and waywardness that can be witnessed
today under modern so-called Islamic states. Indeed, the result might have
been even more disastrous, since indifference or negligence on the part of
exegetes and hadith masters at that crucial stage would have deprived the
Umma of its purpose for thousands of years, if not for all time. As a poet says:
"A moment's negligence makes the way a hundred years longer."
One of the two central problems requiring immediate attention was
the collection and compilation of all the traditions, or hadiths, of Allah's
Messenger
, which had by that time been written down or memorized by
a large number of hadith scholars spread throughout the Islamic realm.1 The
Sunna, represented in the hadith corpus, was a major source of legislation
because the details of the Shari'a are only hinted at or sometimes not explicitly
mentioned in the Qur'an. Thus, the Prophetic hadiths constituted the only
means of deriving the rules of conduct for the Umma and safeguarding the
Islamic character of the Muslim community.
In fact, the Sunna comprises a detailed record of the twenty-three years
of the prophecy of Allah's Messenger , transmitted through the eyewit-
ness accounts of his Companions, relatives, and friends. It is a distinction
not enjoyed by any other prophet.2 Apart from its educational and doctrinal
value, the Sunna is a reservoir of guidance for moral rectitude and spiritual
uplift, for reverence and awe of Allah, and for infusing people with a dynamic
energy to combat evil. The hadith will always generate standard-bearers
who will fill the people with the true content of faith, with enthusiasm and
self-confidence, and will bring them back to the fountainhead of divine
1 The collection and compilation of hadith had actually been taken up by the successors
of the Companions of the Prophet . The active interest taken by 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz has
already been referred to in Chapter 1. In the second century AH there existed numerous hadith
compilations, of which the more well-known include those of Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (d. 124/742),
Ibn Jurayj al-Makkī (d. 150/767), Ibn Ishaq (d. 150/767), Sa'īd ibn Abī Aruba al-Madanī (d. 156/773),
Ma'mar ibn Rashid al-Yamanī (d. 153/770), and Rabī‘ ibn Șabīņ (d. 160/777). It was then necessary
to subject the hadith to more minute scrutiny, and to classify and interpret them in accordance
with carefully devised norms of criticism.
2 Insofar as the Prophet enjoyed divine guidance to give authoritative declarations on
questions, moral, social, or doctrinal, his hadith really constitute a record of divinely inspired
sayings, and consequently occupy a totally different position from what is commonly understood
by traditions in the Christian Church.
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The Hadith Masters & Jurists
guidance and enable them to eliminate the deviations and innovations from
their beliefs and practices.
The second urgent need was to collect, systematize, and formulate new
rulings based on the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunna to address all the
spiritual and political questions of the day. The Qur'an and the Sunna pro-
vide, undoubtedly, the guiding principles that can be applied to every aspect
of the social and intellectual development of human beings. On the other
hand, change is a necessary part of human progress. This is why analogical
deduction of legal opinions (ijtihad) under the inspiration of the Qur'an and
Sunna became necessary to address the new situations and requirements of
the expanding Islamic community.
Compilation of Hadith
Here mention must be made of the divine arrangements made for safeguard-
ing the hadith. Allah Almighty had selected for it a nation celebrated for its
memory, truthfulness, and fidelity. Whatever the Companions of the Allah's
Messenger
saw or heard from him, they preserved with utmost care
and transmitted to the succeeding generations. The memory of the earlier
prophets was preserved by their followers through sculpture and portraits,
but the Companions of the Prophet of Islam, for whom representation in
pictures and engravings was prohibited, left a description of the appearance
and manner of their Prophet so vivid and lively, yet so completely free from
all vices, that there was no need for visual imagery.1
Diligence of the Hadith Masters
Allah Almighty provided Islam with hundreds of earnest scholars peerless
in their memory and intelligence, industry and enthusiasm, and erudition
and scholarly attainment, for the cultivation and development of the science
of hadith. A large number of these were non-Arabs from distant lands who
set off on extensive travels all over the Islamic world in search of hadiths.
Indifferent to most everything else, they devoted themselves to attending the
lectures of the great scholars of theology and planning their own work of
collecting the sayings of Allah's Messenger and the accounts of his deeds
and manners. No other science, nor any civilization, can claim to have had so
many brilliant minds as devoted and zealous, and at the same time as meticu-
1 For this, see the opening chapter of Imam Abu 'Isa al-Tirmidhi's Al-Shama'il al-Muham-
madiyya.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
lous and trustworthy, as were the hadith masters. They moved heaven and
earth to hunt for hadiths in every corner of the Islamic world. Muhammad
ibn Isma il al-Bukhari set off on his errand at the age of fourteen and trav-
eled all the way from Bukhara to Egypt.1 Abū Hatim Muhammad ibn Idrīs
al-Rāzī (d. 277/890) says that he traveled 3,000 farsakhs (9,000 miles) on foot
and thereafter stopped counting. Muhammad ibn Yusuf Athir al-Din Ibn
Hayyan (d. 745/1344) of Andalusia attended lectures of the scholars of hadith
at Andalusia, Iraq, Hijaz, and Yemen, traversing the whole of North Africa
from Tangier to Suez and then across the Red Sea to Yemen. A large number
of hadith masters have left accounts of their travels through Asia, Africa, and
Spain.2 In fact, it was not uncommon in those days to journey from Andalusia
in Europe to Khurasan in Central Asia for the sake of acquiring knowledge
from the reputed scholars of theology in different cities.
Biographical Evaluation
These brilliant scholars did not simply collect and compile the prophetic
hadiths. They also investigated the narrators of the hadiths: their integrity,
truthfulness, and moral and spiritual excellence. In this way, an account of
the lives of all the transmitters of the sayings or acts of the Messenger
who had been given the promise "We raised your reputation high" (Q 94:4)
by his Lord, came to light. Hundreds of thousands of narrators became
known to posterity for handing down a hadith or part of a hadith. This led
to the creation of a new science known as asma' al-rijāl (biographical evalu-
ation, lit. names of men). This branch of knowledge is a living monument to
the deep wisdom, scholarly attainment, sense of responsibility, intellectual
insight, and lofty ambition of the people who developed it. In reality, the
Umma can rightly feel proud of their achievement. In his introduction to
the hadith master Ibn Hajar's Al-Isaba fi Tamyīz al-Sahaba (Hitting the Mark
in Distinguishing the Companions), Dr. A. Sprenger pays glowing tribute to
the servants of hadith:
1 Abū Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ismā īl al-Bukhārī (194/810-256/870) was born in Bukhara.
When still a youth he made the pilgrimage and remained for some time in Mecca attending the
lectures of great scholars of theology. Then he set off on extensive travels which, over the course of
sixteen years, took him all over Islamic Asia. Of the extensive number of hadiths he had collected,
he finally selected 7,275 authentic narrations, applying the most intense scrutiny. His collection,
which is divided into 160 books, is entitled Al-Jāmi al-Sahip (The Authentic Collection) and is
considered as the first and most authoritative of the Six Authentic Collections (Șiņāh Sitta). Bukhari
died in a village near Samarkand, where his tomb is a much-visited site.
2 See Shērwānī, 'Ulamā-i Salaf, 20-22.
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The Hadith Masters & Jurists
The glory of the literature of the Mohammadans is its literary biography.
There is no nation, nor has there been any which like them has during twelve
centuries recorded the life of every man of letters. If the biographical records
of the Musalmans were collected, we should probably have accounts of the
lives of half a million of distinguished persons, and it would be found that
there is not a decennium of their history, nor a place of importance which
has not its representatives.1
Trustworthiness of Hadith Masters
The hadith masters did not simply narrate the biographical accounts of the
transmitters of hadiths. They also took all possible care to record authentic
descriptions of the character, disposition, integrity, prudence, knowledge, and
strength of memory of those narrators. They gleaned all available information
about the narrators provided by their contemporaries, without any partiality
or fear or favor, even if the narrator was a pious and illuminated soul or a
ruler. One of the historians says:
The matchless courage exhibited by the hadith masters in subjecting the nar-
rators of hadiths to an impartial and close scrutiny can justly claim a proud
place in the histories of Islamic peoples. There were numerous caliphs and
commanders noted for their despotism, among the narrators, but the hadith
masters assigned them that very rank which they deserved. Imam Waki' was
a reputed master but his father was a treasurer in the employ of the state.
Therefore, whenever Waki' had occasion to relate a hadith handed down by
his father, he accepted (it) if it was supported by another reliable narrator
and rejected it if nobody in support of his father was to be found. Such a
conscientious and cautious lot were these hadith masters.2
To give one example of their diligence, a hadith master who had knowledge of
certain narrations was sought out in 154/771 by another hadith master, Mu'adh
ibn Mu'adh. However, since the narrator relied on his written memoirs when
relating what he had heard, Mu adh ibn Mu'adh rejected all of his hadiths
on the basis of his weak memory.3 Mu adh ibn Mu adh was once offered ten
thousand dinars simply to remain silent about a certain person's reliability
as a witness. He refused the offer contemptuously, saying that he could not
1 See Sprenger's introduction to Ibn Hajar's Isaba, 1:1.
, 'Asqalani, Tahdhib al-Tahdhib, 11:130.
3 Ibid., 6:211.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
suppress evidence.1 Can history offer any better examples of honesty and
precaution than this?2
Retentive Memory of Hadith Masters
Most of the hadith masters were Persian and Turkmen of elite stock. They
were a robust, vigorous, and resolute people with a strong, retentive memory
whose ardent desire for acquiring knowledge had been kindled by Islam. Like
any other human faculty that grows stronger or weaker with use or disuse,
retentive memory can be strengthened considerably. The human faculty
of memory is losing its retentive power these days owing to easy access to
printed material, so that today many people find the wonderful feats of strong
retentive memory performed in the past difficult to imagine. History bears
witness to many indisputable instances of extraordinary retentive memory,
which are by no means impossible or beyond human experience. The fact is
that an aptitude for one's subject of study, combined with constant applica-
tion and profound interest, can produce a level of proficiency that may seem
miraculous to the uninitiated.
For example, when Imām Bukhari arrived at Baghdad, the scholars
there invented a novel way to test his memory. They selected ten scholars
who were assigned ten hadiths each and told to relate these to Bukharī, but
with the chain of transmission of each hadith affixed to the text of another
hadith.3 Each of these men narrated their mixed-up hadiths as planned and
then asked Bukharī to give his opinion about their authenticity. Bukhārī
replied after every narration that he had no knowledge of such a hadith.
The knowledgeable understood the secret in his answer while the unaware
laughed at his ignorance. After every one of them had finished narrating,
Bukharī addressed the first man and repeated each of the ten hadiths he had
narrated, but with the correct chain of narrators. Thereafter, he turned to
each of the other questioners and recounted the corrected versions of their
hadiths one by one. Everyone present was dumbfounded by his sharpness
and exceptional memory.4
1 Ibid., 6:431.
2 Sayyid Sulayman Nadwī, Khuțbāt-i Madrās, 59-60.
3 The introductory portion of a hadith consists of the chain of narrators who transmitted
a particular saying attributed to the Messenger of Allah , while the main text comprises the
quotation of the Messenger's words or action.
4 'Asqalānī, Fath al-Bārī, 1:487.
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The Hadith Masters & Jurists
Popular Enthusiasm
The selfless devotion and care with which the hadith masters devoted them-
selves to the study of the Sunna of Allah's Messenger @ aroused a general
awareness and enthusiasm for the science of hadith among the masses. People
flocked to the lectures of the hadith masters by the thousands, with an avid
desire to benefit from these gatherings. It is related by the historians that
despite the huge crowds who attended the lectures of the hadith masters,
these meetings were more disciplined and tidy than the rulers' courts.
It is reported that the number of people attending the lectures of Abū
Khalid Yazīd ibn Hārun al-Wāsiți (d. 206/821) in Baghdad exceeded 70,000.
Caliph Mu'tasim bi-'Llah once dispatched a trusted aide to report on the
number of persons attending the discourse of 'Asim ibn 'Ali, a master who
lectured in a grove on the outskirts of Baghdad. He estimated 124,000 people
in attendance. Another historian, Ahmad ibn Ja far al-Khuttulī, says that when
Abū Muslim al-Kajji (d. 292/905) came to Baghdad, he assembled a meet-
ing at Ghassan Square for dictating hadiths. Seven persons were appointed
to repeat what Abū Muslim dictated. Apart from the people who came to
listen to the discourse, a large number took down the hadiths he narrated.
The inkpots counted after this gathering exceeded 40,000. Another scholar
of repute, Abū Bakr Jafar ibn Muhammad al-Firyābī (d. 301/913), had to
employ 316 persons to repeat his words to the crowd attending his lectures. It
is estimated that about 30,000 persons attended his lectures, of which 10,000
took down the notes of his discourses.' Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Firabrī (d.
320/932) reports that 90,000 people heard Al-Jāmi al-Sahih personally from
the author Imam Bukhārī.2
The Six Authentic Collections (Șihah Sitta)
Unprecedented popular enthusiasm, devotion, and ardent desire for the
cultivation of religious sciences were helpful in obtaining an authentic and
trustworthy collection of hadiths, which is unquestionably a storehouse of
guidance and a valuable asset for the Umma. Among the compilations of
hadith, the Sahih works of Bukhari and Muslim are held up as undisputed
authorities, and the narrations accepted by both men are known as the
"agreed-upon ones," signifying a high degree of reliability.3 Other works
1 'Ulamā-i Salaf, 68.
Fath al-Barī, 1:492.
3 Shah Waliyyullah writes in Hujjat Allah al-Baligha: "Hadith scholars agree that all the
connected narrations reported to have been related or performed by the Prophet himself and
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
held in high esteem but taking their place after the collections of Bukhari
and Muslim include the Muwatta' of Imam Malik (d. 179/795), the Jāmi' of
Imām Tirmidhī (d. 279/892), the Sunan of Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī (d. 275/888),
and the collections of Abū 'Abd al-Rahman al-Nasa'ī (d. 303/915), and Abū
'Abdillah Muhammad ibn Māja (d. 273/886). All of the later movements
toward reformation and regeneration in Islam owe their existence to the
accomplishments of the hadith masters, since no effort can succeed even
now without drawing inspiration from these beacons of light.
Compilation of Jurisprudence
Like the compilation of hadith, the codification of laws regulating public
and private life, the amplification of the body of law, and the deduction of
rules for issuing decisions in legal matters were urgent problems that had
to be tackled immediately. Islam had penetrated the far-off lands of Syria,
Iraq, Egypt, Iran, and other places where its impact on local habits, customs,
and practices had given rise to many complicated problems. To solve these
problems in consonance with the spirit of Islam required a deep knowledge
of the prevailing conditions in these countries, the customs and traditions
of the different sections of society, the patterns of human behavior, and a
penetrating intellect, along with a strong command of Islamic teachings, the
Qur'an and Sunna, and the history and language of the Arabs.
The Four Jurists of Islam
We are again fortunate that Allah favored Islam with models of unsurpassed
intelligence and knowledge, earnestness and trustworthiness, who stepped
forward for the service of the Umma in this field. These men of note include
the four founders of juristic schools: Abū Hanifa Nu man ibn Thabit (d.
150/767), Abū 'Abdillāh Mālik ibn Anas (d. 179/795), Muhammad ibn Idrīs
al-Shafi'ī (d. 204/819), and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241/855). These men were
highly esteemed scholars noted for their outstanding piety, service to the
community, scholarship, and understanding of legal matters. They dedicated
their lives to their noble cause, established a lifestyle of contentment and
resignation, and turned their backs on all the inducements of wealth, power,
and position. Abū Hanifa twice refused the high office of chief justice offered
him by the caliph and was cast into prison, where he eventually died of the
reported in these two collections are undisputedly correct, for the chains of narrators given in
these books are complete. Anyone who denigrates these compilations is an apostate and a dis-
senter" (Hujjat Allah, 1:133).
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The Hadith Masters & Jurists
corporal punishment inflicted on him. Malik ibn Anas was flogged so severely
that his shoulder blade was dislocated.1 Shafi i led a life of difficulty resulting
in irreparable loss to his health. Ahmad ibn Hanbal set his face against the
official school of the dominant theology of his time. He was tried before a
court of inquisition and thrown into prison, but he steadfastly held to the
tradition of the orthodox school.
Each of these jurists also left such lengthy treatises on jurisprudence and
legal rulings as could hardly be produced even through the coordinated
efforts of several people. Abū Hanifa is reported to have formulated 83,000
juristic rulings, of which 38,000 pertained to acts of worship and 45,000 to
transactions, rights, and duties between Muslims.2 Another authority, Shams
al-A'imma al-Kardarī, writes that the total number of Abū Hanifa's legal opin-
ions was 600,000.3 The Mudawwana, comprising Malik ibn Anas's religious
and judicial edicts, contains 36,000 decisions.4 The collection of writings
and lectures of Shafi'i known under the title Kitab al-Umm runs into seven
lengthy volumes. The decisions of Ahmad ibn Hanbal were compiled by Abū
Bakr al-Khallal (d. 311/923) in forty volumes.5
Disciples of the Four Jurists
The founders of juristic schools were fortunate to have successors and dis-
ciples who not only compiled and redacted the compositions of their masters,
but also made improvements and additions to them. Of the pupils of Abū
Hanīfa was Abū Yusuf, an eminent legal mind and later chief justice under
Hārun al-Rashīd. He produced such scholarly works as Kitab al-Kharāj on
the principles of Islamic economics. Imam Abu Hanifa's other disciples
included such illustrious writers and jurists as Muhammad ibn al-Hasan
al-Shaybanī and Zufar ibn Hudhayl, who firmly established and popularized
the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. Abdullah ibn Wahab, Abd al-Rahman ibn
al-Qasim, Ashhab ibn 'Abd al-Azīz, Abdullah ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, and Yahyā
ibn Yahya al-Laythi were disciples of Malik ibn Anas who propagated the
1 The point at the issue was whether the divorce given under compulsion is effective or not.
The caliphs in those days used to take the pledge of fealty from the populace with a stipulation
that if they broke the pledge, their wives would automatically be divorced. Imam Malik's legal
opinion that a divorce given under compulsion was ineffective made this stipulation in the pledge
ineffective, thus causing a stir in official circles.
2 Amīn, Fajr al-Islam, 2:188; Makkī, Manāqib al-Imām, 96.
3 Kardarī, Manāqib al-Imām, 144.
4 Amīn, Duļā 'I-Islam, 2:215.
5 Ibn al-'Imād, Shadharat al-Dhahab, 2:361.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
Malikī system in Egypt and North Africa. Shafi'ī was fortunate to have Yusuf
ibn Yahya al-Buwaytī, Ismā il ibn Yahya al-Muzanī, and Rabī' ibn Sulayman
al-Murādī to compile, edit, and codify his legal decisions. Ibn Qudāma, a
research scholar and accomplished writer, wrote the Mughnī to compile the
rulings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. He work occupies a proud place among the
Islamic juristic works.
Benefits of Jurisprudence
That jurists of redoubtable scholarship were born in the first few centuries
of the Islamic era demonstrates the vitality and inherent capability of the
Umma. The endeavors of the jurists provided a framework for the manifes-
tation of Islamic ideals and ethical precepts in the day-to-day affairs of the
people and protected them from the intellectual confusion and social anarchy
which has brought many nations to ruin in their earliest stages. These jurists
established the Islamic legal system on a firm foundation and formulated its
principles in such a way as could always solve new problems that confronted
the Umma in the future and provide a pattern of behavior in harmony with
the spirit of Islam.
76

CHAPTER 4
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Metaphysics
By the beginning of the second/eighth century, Muslims had gained familiar-
ity with the Hellenistic intellectual tradition. The philosophical thought of
the Greeks was little more than sophistry and wordplay devoid of any basis
in reality. The notions and ideas of mankind, limited as they are, can only
find expression in human language, which is wholly inadequate to describe
the nature and attributes of the Limitless Being. Such questions as the nature
of Allah, His attributes, and His creative power do not lend themselves to
analysis, experimentation, or rational explanation in the way that tangible
objects do. This is true primarily because man does not possess the requisite
knowledge or the basic principles and experiences to deal with these exalted
matters. The entire structure of mankind's thoughts, ideas, and imagination
rests fundamentally on sensory perception. In truth, divine revelation through
Allah's apostles is the only means of acquiring knowledge of these matters
with any certitude, for this alone can provide mankind with the intimate
knowledge of the Supreme Being and His attributes. Trust in the prophets,
therefore, is a mark of prudence and sound intellect.
Muslims possessed the Qur'an and the Sunna, which provided an answer
to all intellectual and spiritual questions and left no justification for indulg-
ing in philosophical speculation. The Companions of Allah's Messenger
their successors, the jurists, and the hadith scholars all took the same posi-
tion. Early Muslims were furthermore preoccupied with the propagation of
their faith, the compilation of religious sciences, and the political conquests
that brought about numerous problems concerning private and public life
that had to be reconciled with the ethical norms of Islam. However, with the
translation of Greek and Syriac works and close contact with the academics,
philosophers, and scholars of other civilizations, a segment of the Muslims
77

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
began to take an interest in the so-called rational and intellectual interpreta-
tion of the revealed truth.
These people, discontent with the realistic and direct answers to the
spiritual questions provided by scripture (which were in fact more profound,
well-grounded, and satisfying to the intellect), were attracted by the sophistry
of philosophical speculation. The result of their endeavors were fruitless
controversies pertaining to the nature and attributes of Allah, the eternal or
accidental nature of His Word, the seeing of Allah through corporeal eyes,
predestination, and free will, although these issues were neither necessary for
theological purposes nor had any benefit for cultural or social advancement.
These discussions had an undeniably divisive influence on the solidarity of
the Umma and were detrimental to its strength and endurance.
Mu'tazilism
At the head of this group of religious philosophers were the Mu'tazilis. They
were regarded as rationalists and dialecticians because they had made philo-
sophical speculation the criterion for determining faith and apostasy. They
endeavored with all the wits at their command to reconcile religion with
philosophy, faith with so-called reason; whereas jurists and hadith scholars,
on the other hand, adhered to the doctrinal tenets of their predecessors
and considered such quibbling not only futile but harmful to the Umma.
Mu'tazilism did not quite take root until the reign of Hārun al-Rashid. But
it was only during the rule of his son Ma'mun, who since his upbringing had
been very impressed with Greek thought and rationalism, and his approach
matched that of the Mu'tazilites, that the star of the Mu'tazili school clearly
rose over the horizon. Ibn Abī Dawud, an ardent propagator of Mu'tazilism
and chief justice to the Abbasid Caliphate, exerted his influence to make it
the state doctrine. Ma'mun had the impatience of a youth and the obstinacy
of an autocrat.1 He made it possible for the Mu'tazilis to exercise inordinate
influence over the whole empire.
The doctrine of the createdness of the Qur'an2 was held as the basic tenet
1 An example of his rashness is furnished by his declaration of the preference of 'Ali over the
first three caliphs and of the validity of temporary marriage contracts, which caused considerable
resentment among the masses. He later had to retrace his steps upon intervention from Yahya ibn
Aktham (Duļā 'I-Islām, 3:165; Ibn Țayfūr, Kitab Baghdad, 45).
2 The controversy regarding the creation of Qur'an-its finite or eternal nature-was entirely
a philosophical speculation, which, even according to the Mu'tazilī historians, served only to shake
people's faith in the divine origin of the Qur'an. Hadith scholars opposed the interpretations of the
Mu'tazilī school, holding them to be wrong and harmful to the Umma. The Mu'tazilis are commonly
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Ahmad ibn Hanbal
of the Mu tazili school. It was enforced by invoking the power and influence
of the state, and was made a criterion for determining one's heresy or one's
adherence to the true faith. This brought forth vehement opposition from
the hadith scholars, with Ahmad ibn Hanbal at the helm of the movement.
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal was born in Baghdad in Rabi al-Awwal 164/780. He
hailed from the Arab tribe of Shayban, which was renowned for its courage,
endurance, grit, and vigor.1 His grandfather, Hanbal ibn Hilal, had migrated
from Basra to Khurasan and was appointed governor of Sarakhsh under the
Umayyads, but he was sympathetic to the Abbasid scheme to install Banū
Hashim, the descendants of the Prophet , in place of the Umayyads. After
his father's death, his mother migrated to Baghdad, where Ahmad was born.
Although placed in dire circumstances, his mother took pains to provide
him with the best possible education. Ahmad, despite his lack of means, also
learned to be industrious, patient, resolute, and self-restrained. He committed
the Qur'an to memory while still young, studied literature for some time,
and then enlisted in an office to gain proficiency in writing.
Ahmad possessed a virtue and a purity of conscience from his early
childhood. His uncle held the post of an official reporter in Baghdad and
used to send dispatches to his superiors about the affairs of the city. Once he
handed over a bundle of his dispatches to Ahmad for delivery to a courier,
but Ahmad threw them away in the river because he thought they contained
secret reports about certain persons. While he was working as an apprentice
in the correspondence office, many housewives whose husbands were away on
military duty came to have their letters read out to them and replies written
on their behalf. Ahmad would oblige them, but he refused to write anything
he considered undignified or against the Shari'a. It was on the basis of these
distinctive qualities that a discerning man (Haytham ibn Jamil) predicted that
"if the young man remains alive, he will be a model for the people of his time."2
regarded as rationalist and progressive, but they proved to be the most turbulent sectarians, since
they endeavored to stifle all opposition to their creed. They filled the entire Islamic world with
rancor and fanned the flame of hatred between different segments of the populace. The manner
in which they dealt with their opponents is reminiscent of the courts of Inquisition set up by the
Catholic Church during the Middle Ages for the repression of liberal thinkers. This behavior is
what ultimately gave a death blow to Mu'tazilism.
1 The famous commander under Caliph Abu Bakr, Muthanna ibn Haritha, hailed from the
same tribe.
2 Dhahabī, Tarjamat al-Imām, 16.
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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT
In religious sciences, Ahmad paid special attention to the hadiths. In the
beginning he took notes of the hadiths from Abu Yusuf and then studied for
four years under a famous hadith scholar of Baghdad, Haytham ibn Bashir (d.
182/798).1 During this period he also received education from 'Abd al-Rahman
ibn Mahdī, Abu Bakr ibn Ayyash, and a few other reputed teachers of hadith.
Ahmad was an avid and industrious student. He often wanted to leave home
for his studies so early in the morning that his mother had to beg him to
wait until the call for the morning prayer was heard and the darkness had
at least begun to fade away.
After completing his education in Baghdad, he set out for Basra, Hijaz,
Yemen, Syria, and Upper Mesapotamia (Jazira)2 to attend the lectures of
the reputed scholars of hadith in these places. Ahmad ibn Hanbal met
Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafi'ī in 187/803 while on his first visit to Hijaz.3
He met Shafi'ī again in Baghdad after he had expanded the science of juris-
prudence into a comprehensive system and developed the doctrine of ijmā"
(consensus). Ahmad had acquired such proficiency by then that Shafi'i used
to depend on his knowledge, and often asked Ahmad to enlighten him about
the authenticity of certain hadiths.
Ahmad wanted to set off for Rayy, in Iran, to attend the lectures of a
reputed hadith scholar, Jarīr ibn Abd al-Hamid, but could not go because of
a lack of funds. He often remarked that if he had even ninety dirhams, he
would have left for Rayy. Another incident indicative of his zeal for acquiring
knowledge of hadith has been related by the historians. In 198/813 he decided
to depart to Hijaz and then, after performing the hajj, to Sana'a, Yemen, to
listen to hadith from 'Abd al-Razzaq ibn al-Humam. One of his colleagues,
Yahya ibn Ma'in, also promised to accompany him. However, when they
were circumambulating the Ka'ba, they happened to meet 'Abd al-Razzaq
ibn al-Humam. Ibn Ma'în was acquainted with him so he greeted him and
introduced Ahmad to him. He also made a request to give them some time
for learning the hadiths from him. After 'Abd al-Razzaq left, Ahmad told Ibn
Ma'in that it was not befitting for them to take advantage of the shaykh's pres-
ence in Makka to listen the hadiths from him. Although Ibn Ma'in pleaded
1 Ibn al-Jawzī, Manāqib al-Imam Ahmad, 23.
2 Jazira is the name used for the uplands of northwestern Iraq and northeastern Syria and
southeastern Turkey. It refers to the northern section of Mesopotamia, which together with Sawād,
made up Iraq. The name means "island," and at one time referred to the land between the river
Euphrates and Tigris.
3 Abū Zahra, Ibn Hanbal, 33.
80