النص المفهرس

وعن عبد الله بن مغفل قال: "رأيت النبي يقرأ وهو على نافته أو جمله .. وهو يقرأ سورة الفتح - أو من سورة الفتح
- قراءة لينة يقرأ وهو يرجع.
8) Tardīd al-Ayah - the Prophet
would repeat certain verses during
recitation.
Abu Dharr dog relates that the Prophet
recited a verse and continued repeating it
until the morning.53
عن أبي ذر أن النبي قرأ الآية فرددها حتى أصبح ...
9) Zamzamah - a soft recitation, audible only to the one reciting.54
Makhul relates that he asked Anas
: "How was the recitation of the messenger of
Allah?" He replied: "his recitation was inaudible (zamzamah)". He was asked: "O
messenger of Allah, if only you raised your voice (during recitation)". He responded:
"I disliked that I would inconvenience my company or the household".55
وعن مكحول، سألت أنسا: كيف كانت قراءة رسول الله؟ قال: كانت قراءته الزمزمة، قال: فقيل له: يا رسول الله لو
رفعت صوتك، قال: إني لأكره أن أوذي جليسي، أو أوذي أهل بيتي.
10) Bukā' - crying during recitation or a sad recitation.
Mutarrif relates from his father that he found the Messenger of Allah (reciting) in
prayer and his chest was "whistling" like the whistling of a boiling kettle.56
عن مطرف عن أبيه قال: انتهيت إلى رسول الله وهو يصلي ولصدره أزيز كأزيز المِرْجَل.
53 See Nasã'ī, Sunan: 2/24; Ibn Mājah, Sunan: 1/429.
54 Abū Ma'shar al-Țabarī, al-Talkhīs: 132.
55 See Țabarānī, Musnad al-Shamiyyīn: hadith number 3378; Hamadhānī, al-Tamhīd fi Ma'rifat al-Tajwid: 183.
The report of the Prophet
reciting with "zamzamah" is considered weak. Therefore Hamadhanī does not
regard this as one of the descriptions of the Prophet's
recitation. See al-Tamhīd fi Ma'rifat al-Tajwid: 159, 183;
see also al-Ada' al-Qur'anī fi al-Hadith al-Nabawī wa al-Athar. 106; Tajwid al-Lafth fi Qira'at al-Qur'an: 107.
56 See Ahmad, Musnad: 26/242.
This hadith appears in various books under the chapter-heading which infers crying during recitation. See Abū
Dāwūd, Sunan: hadith 904; Tirmidhī, al-Shamā'il al-Muhammadiyyah: 181; Bayhaqī, Sunan al-Kubrā: 1/292; Ibn
Khuzaymah, Şahī: 1/450.
The Sunan of Ibn Majah (1/424) also relates that the Prophet Muhammad
said: "This Qur'an was revealed
denoting sadness. So when you recite it, cry. And if you are unable to cry, then feign crying".
17

Orality: The Companions and Qur'anic Recitation
The same words used to describe the recitation of the Prophet Muhammad ett
are
used to describe the recitation of his Companions
:
. 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ūd
- he recited "mufassaratan harfan
harfan/mubayyanatan".
The Prophet Muhammad
stated that whoever loves to recite the Qur'an, fresh, as
it was revealed, should recite the reading of Ibn Masud . Abu Bakr and 'Umar
then went to listen to the recitation of Ibn Mas ud
and described it as articulate
with each letter distinct from the other (mufassaratan, harfan harfan).57 Bukhārī
explains this recitation as being each letter distinct with due clarity (harfan harfan
mubayyanatan).58
In other narrations, his recitation is described as being with tarti/.59
· 'Umar ibn al-Khațtāb
- he recited slowly or pacingly (bati'ah).60
. Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas
- he recited with tartil (yurattil al-Qur'an) and
every letter distinctly (harfan harfan).61
· 'Umar, Hishām ibn Hakīm and Ubayy ibn Kab
e - all their readings
incorporated the seven ahruf. (Dutton, 2011).
57 Tirmidhī, 'Ilal al-Kabir. 351.
58 Bukhārī, al-Tārīkh al-Kabīr. 1/361.
59 Mizzī, Tahdhīb al-Kamāl: 7/321-322; Ibn Abī Shaybah, Mușannaf. 3/232; Sunan Abī Dāwūd: 1/517-518.
60 'Abd al-Razzaq, Muşannaf. 2/114.
61 This is reported by a student of Ibn 'Abbas, Ibn Abī Mulaykah (d. 117). Ibn Abī Shaybah, Muşannaf. 19/505.
18

Orality: The Successors and Qur'anic Recitation
· Mujahid ibn Jabr (d. 104/722) - he relates that he recited the Qur'an with 30
completed renditions, reciting every letter distinctly (harfan harfan).62
. Muslim ibn Jundab al-Hudhalī (d. 130/748) - the same description that the
Prophet
gave to the recitation of Ibn Mas'ud age
was given to his i.e.
whoever wishes to hear the Qur'an, fresh as it was revealed should listen to
the recitation of Muslim ibn Jundab.63
· Umm al-Darda' we)
- she loved to recite the Qur'an as it was revealed.64 This
is similar to the description given of Ibn Mas'ud's
recitation by the
Prophet @
.
· 'Alqamah ibn Qays (d. 62/682) - he was reciting swiftly ( 'ajala) to Ibn Mas'ūd
who then remarked that he should instead recite with tartil.65
Most of these descriptions during this period - tartil, tarassul, tafsir, bati'ah, harfan
harfan - emphasize a slow, pacing recitation with due clarity. In contrast to this slow-
paced recitation would be a swift recitation, referred to as hadhramah, hadhdh and
hadr. The Prophet Muhammad e
explicitly prevented 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amr ibn al-
‘Āş .
from completing a rendition of the entire Qur'an in less than three days; the
reason given was that one who recited it in such a short period was not focused on
the meaning (man gara'a al-Qur'an fi aqall min thalath lam yafqah).66 Ibn 'Abbās
62 Bukhārī, al-Tārīkh al-Kabīr. 8/66.
63 This description of Muslim's recitation is given by the Successor, 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Azīz (d. 101/720). See Ibn
al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihayah: 2/297.
64 Ibn Abī Shaybah, Muşannaf. 15/434.
65 Al-Sallam, Fada'il al-Qur'an: 1/325; Ibn al-Sa'd, al-Țabagāt al-Kabīr: 8/209-210; Ibn Abī Shaybah, Mușannaf.
6/50.
66 Ibn Abī Shaybah, Muşannaf. 5/509-510; Ahmad, Musnad: 11/91-92; Abū Dāwūd, Sunan: 2/236; al-Tirmidhī,
Sunan: 5/64.
19

preferred reciting slowly as opposed to reciting with hadhramah.67 'Umar
stated
that the worst kind of recitation was hadhramah.68 When a man boasted to Ibn
Mas'ūd dog about how much he had recited of the Qur'an the previous night, he
became angry and responded that it was a swift recital, like that of poetry ( hadhdhan
ka hadhdh al-shi'r).69 This did not mean that a fast-paced recitation was not allowed
though. From amongst the Successors, 'Ata' ibn Abī Rabah (d. 105/723) and Mujahid
ibn Jabr recited swiftly (yahudh-dhan al-Qur'an hadhdhan).7º From the Companions,
Abū Hurayrah &
as well as Ibn 'Abbas
was reported to have read with hadr
(yahdur al-sūrah), which was a fast-paced recitation.71 The reason for wanting to recite
at a swift pace was to gain more reward ( takthīr al-hasanāt).
The preferred practice is tartil because it allows for reflection upon what is being read,
as per the Prophet's e
guidance. However, hadr is also allowed. Nafi (d. 169/785)
stipulates though, that when reciting swiftly, with hadr, one is still obligated to
articulate each letter and vowel with due clarity.72 Thus, though a slow-paced
recitation is preferred, hadr is allowed, and was practised upon by the earliest
generations, with the prerequisite that no compromise was being made on correct
Arabic articulation of the Qur'an. Abū Muzahim al-Khaqānī gives allowance for hadr
in his poem with this very prerequisite73; Dani simply considered hadr as being
included within tartil, however, to a lesser degree.74
67 Al-Sallam, Gharib al-Hadith: 5/245.
68 Al-Khațīb, al-Jāmi' li Akhlāq al-Rāwī wa al-Sāmi: 1/262.
69 Ahmad, Musnad: 7/78; Ibn Abī Shaybah, Mușannaf. 6/53.
70 Ibn Abī Shaybah, Muşannaf. 6/52.
71 'Abd al-Razzaq, Muşannaf. 1/261; Ibn 'Adī, al-Kāmil: 8/689.
72 Dānī, al-Tahdīd: 91. See also al-Nashr. 1/207.
73 See line 12 of al-Khaqāniyyah.
74 Dānī, al-Taķdīd: 93.
20

Foreign Elements Entering Into Islam
It was towards the end of Abu Bakr's &
caliphate (d. 13/634) that Islam spread
beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula towards Levant and Iraq. During
'Umar's de caliphate (d. 23/644), it spread even further. It was to be expected that
the huge influx of foreign - non-Arab - masses who entered into the fold of Islam
struggled to grasp this new language, Arabic. So, the Arabic language, that was
considered to be innate to Islam, became a challenge for many. Furthermore, the
linguistic purity (fasahah) of the native Arabs became tainted due to their exposure to
these foreign elements at such a large scale.75 With this new context, the guidance
given to recite the Qur'an to non-Arabs was simply to recite the Qur'an in Arabic or
with fasahah. Consider that 'Umar age instructed: "learn to recite the Qur'an in
Arabic" (ta'allamū qirā'at al-Qur'an bi al-'Arabiyyah).76 Ibn Mas'ūd
said:
"Arabacise the Qur'an because it is in Arabic" (a'rib al-Qur'an fa'innahū 'Arabiyy).77
Ubayy ibn Ka'b &g
stated: "learn the Arabic of the Qur'an as you learn its
memorisation" (ta'allamū 'Arabiyyat al-Qur'an kama ta'allamun hifthahū). These same
sentiments were shared by the succeeding generation, like Ibrahim al-Nakha'ī and
Hasan al-Başrī, who also instructed that the Qur'an be read in the Arab tongue.78 The
Successor and eponymous Reader, 'Abd Allah ibn Kathir, is recorded to have been
eloquent in his Qur'anic recitation (kāna fașīhan bi al-Qur'an).79
To suggest that what is intended by "'Arabiyyat al-Qur'an" in these statements refers
to Arabic syntax would be implausible since Arabic had not been codified during this
period yet.80 Considering the context in which these statements were made i.e. when
75 Mubarrid, al-Fādil: 4; Dānī, al-Muļkam fi Naqt al-Mașāhif. 18-19; Qurțubī, al-Mūdaķ: 61-65.
76 Ibn Wahb, al-Jāmi: 3/39.
77 Ibn Abī Shaybah, Mușannaf. 15/432; al-Țabarānī: al-Mu'jam al-Kabīr. 9/139.
78 Dūlābī, al-Kunā wa al-Asmā': 3/1159; Ibn Wahb, al-Jāmi: 3/43.
79 Ahmad, al-'Ilal wa Ma'rifat al-Rijāl: 2/317; Dānī, Jāmi' al-Bayān: 47.
80 Suyūtī has a chapter in his Itqān on "I'rāb al-Qur'an" (1/575), in which he details various grammatical analyses
of the Arabic constructs in verses of the Qur'an. It is implausible to think that this was intended by these
21

non-Arabs were being introduced to the Arabic language, it would be most likely that
the most basic elements of the Arabic language was being intended i.e. that they
enunciate the letters and vowels of the Arabic language correctly when reciting. In
Kisā'ī's (d. 189/805) book, Ma Talhan fih al-'Āmmah (Those [pronunciations] in
which the Laity Err), these are the exact discussions that one finds; he points out
errors made in the harakat (vowels)81, iskan (unvowelling)82, changing of letters
(huruf)83, madd in the letters of madd4, the tashdid5, takhfif (without a tashdid)86,
adding letters.87 With this context in mind, one can understand why Khalil (d. circa
170/786) and Sībaway (d. 180/796) dedicated sections in their books to explain the
details of Arabic phonology and phonetics, including matters as simple as the names
of the letters ( alqab al-huruf).88
If the Arabic letters or vowels were not being articulated correctly, an error was being
committed i.e. lahn, which was abhorred. Ibn 'Umar
would beat his son if he
committed lahn - errors in articulating the Arabic letters or vowels - and left his son
if he made mistakes in the memorisation of the Qur'an (khata').89 Abu Bakr
stated that he preferred to recite and err (khata') than to commit lahn.90 Ubayy ibn
statements at such an early age in which non-Arabs were being introduced to a new foreign language, Arabic, but
before learning its alphabets or vowels they had to contend with grammatical analyses of the verses of the Qur'an.
Paul Kahle proposes that what is meant by "i'rab" is that previously the Qur'an was read without i'rab. (Kahle,
1949). Zahniser states that "In spite of Kahle's support, almost no one now holds that a vernacular Qur'an was
upgraded at a later time to an inflected formal and literary language". Zahniser, Language of the Qur'an, The
Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies (Ed. Mustafa Shah and Abdel Haleem): 279.
81 See for example: Kisa'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Ammah: 99, 100, 101.
82 See for example: Kisā'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Āmmah: 112.
83 See for example: Kisā'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Āmmah: 100, 105.
84 See for example: Kisa'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Ammah: 101, 108, 109, 110, 116.
85 See for example: Kisā'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Ammah: 102, 112, 113.
86 See for example: Kisa'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Ammah: 109.
87 See for example: Kisā'ī, Ma Talhan fih al-'Āmmah: 103.
88 Al-Farāhīdī, Kitab al-'Ayn: 1/58.
89 Bukhārī, Adab al-Mufrad: 307; Ibn Abī Shaybah, Mușannaf. 13/165.
90 Al-Mustaghfirī, Fadā'il al-Qur'ān: 1/189; al-Hamadhānī, al-Tamhīd: 202.
22

Kab
advised that a person learns the lahn of the Qur'an as he learns its (correct)
recitation. There is a plethora of statements that could be quoted encouraging the
awareness of lahn in Qur'anic recitation.91 It was through the recognition of lahn that
reciters grasped correct pronunciation i.e. fasahah or 'Arabiyyah. On the very first
page of Kisa'i's book dedicated to lahn, he writes that the knowledge of these errors is
imperative for those who aspire for fasahah (la budda min ahl al-fasahah min
ma'rifatihi). Ibn al-Munādī (d. 336/948)92 is also considered of the earliest writers in
the lahn genre.93 Therefore, it is no surprise that the earliest writings on tajwid,
including Abū Muzāhim al-Khāqānī, encouraged fașahah and the recognition of
lahn.94 Up until present-day, tajwid manuals define lahn jaliyy (a clear error) as an
error made in the basic pronunciation of the Arabic letters or vowels. Nöldeke writes
that the term tajwid later became "the synonym for linguistic purity (fasahah)".
(Nöldeke, 2013: 534).
91 See Tajwid al-Lafth fi Qira'at al-Qur'an: 164.
92 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/44.
93 'Ali ibn Ja'far al-Sa'īdī (d. 410) references Ibn al-Munādī in three places in his book on tajwīd, al-Tanbīh 'alā al-
Lahn al-Jalī wa al-Lahn al-Khafr: 39, 51, 54.
94 Refer to line 21-24 of al-Khaqāniyyah.
23

The Earliest Writings on Qira'at
The initial reader or researcher into Islam's earliest writings may find it confusing. For
example, gira'āt literature stem from as early as the second half of the first hijrī
century.95 Of the earliest reported literature on qira'at is that of Yahya ibn Ya'mar (d.
90/709)96 and Abān ibn Taghlib (d. 141/758)97, amongst others. Ibn al-Jazarī,
attributes books of gira'āt to the eponymous Readers, like Hamzah (d. 156)98, Hafs (d.
180)99, Kisā'ī (d. 189)100, amongst others. Yet, Ibn al-Jazarī regards the Kitab al-Qira'āt
of Abū 'Ubayd al-Qasim Ibn Sallam (d. 224/839) - a later documentation - to be the
first compilation in qirā'āt.101 Ibn al-Jazarī also counts Abū Hatim al-Sijistānī (d.
255/869) as one of the first compilers of gira'at.102 How does one reconcile these
conflicting opinions of Ibn al-Jazarī?
Schoeler divides writing during this period into two types: hypomnemata and
syngramma. The former was private written records which served as aide-memoire to
lectures (majalis al-'ilm) or conversations while the latter was literary efforts
composed, revised and redacted into a "published" work. (Schoeler, 2006: 46).
"We want to stress that the problem had already been solved in principle
by Bergsträsser, Pretzl and Beck ... As a starting point we need to
remember the following: 'primarily, we have to do with an oral tradition,
which was put into writing only at a later stage.' This clearly makes the
most sense: the Qur'anic text was read out during lectures, and the
teacher explained certain problematic passages. It is perfectly conceivable
that, from the very beginning, students took notes of the teachers'
95 al-Fadlī, 2009, 40.
96 Ibn 'Ațiyyah, al-Muqaddimatān fi 'Ulum al-Qur'an, (ed. Arthur Jeffery): 275-276.
97 al-Nadīm, 1988, 276.
98 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/494.
99 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihayah: 2/11.
Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/539.
101 Ibn al-Jazarī, al-Nashr. 1/33-34.
102 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/320.
24

comments. Bergsträsser and Pretzl, however, established that the first
written records of this kind [ attested in sources] ... date from the middle of
the 2nd/8th century, the time of the younger canonical Qur'an readers and
that of the older students of the older canonical Qur'an readers."
(Schoeler, 2006: 78).
Bergsträsser and Pretzl draw from various sources, establishing that writing occurred
during their lectures. We often read that the student took notes from the teacher (la-
hū 'an-hu nuskhah)103, the student had a book that he wrote from the teacher
(kitābuhū 'an-hul qara'tu 'alā Nāfi' qirā'atahū wa katabtuhā fi kitābī hādha)104, the
teacher or student wrote down the reading (kataba lī al-qira'ah)105 etc. These are all
examples within the second hijrī century.
"From this evidence, Bergstrasser and Pretzl drew the necessary
conclusion that these nusab and kutub were not yet published literary
books but purely private records, 'lecture notes of a kind' and thus 'not,
strictly speaking, a literature about Qur'anic readings, but its precursor."
(Schoeler, 2006: 78).
Many of the works appearing during this period under titles like "kitab al-qira'ať"
(book of Qur'anic readings), "kitab al-huruf (differences of Quranic readings)106,
"hurūf 'Āşim" (the differences of 'Āşim), "kitab ‘Amr ibn al-Şabbāh" (the
readings/differences of 'Amr ibn al-Sabbah)107, "al-ikhtilaf bayn Nafi wa Hamzah"
(the differences between the readings of Nafi' and Hamzah)108 were, according to
Bergsträsser and Pretzl, "unpublished works". Bergsträsser and Pretzl both agree with
Ibn al-Jazarī in that the earliest authors of "published works" were Ibn Sallam and
103 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/9, 190, 259, 269; 2/168.
104 Dānī, Jāmi' al-Bayān: 46, 435.
105 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 2/11.
106 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/539.
107 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 2/342.
108
Dānī, Jāmi‘ al-Bayān: 46, 393.
25

Sijistānī. The book of Ibn Sallam "was editorially finished, and thus stable enough
that in practice, it could also be disseminated by manual copying. In theory, however,
it was still to be read out before its author." (Schoeler, 2006: 79).
Thus, like with other parallel developments in other Islamic sciences like hadith,
philology and so forth, "published books" (syngramma) were preceded by private or
personal works which served as mnemonic aids (hypomnēmata). Noldeke also notes
that these earlier works were precursors to the more considerable works which
appeared later. (Noldeke, 2013: 545).109
None of the afore-mentioned books on gira'at are extant any longer. The earliest
extant book in qirā'āt is Kitab al-Sabah of Abu Bakr ibn Mujahid. Ibn Mujahid
occasionally references the book of qira'at of Ibn Sallam.110 Kitab al-Sabah also
contains snippets of tajwid discussions in it.
When it came to written copies of the Qur'an itself, they functioned as hypomnemata,
in which the text was revised and corrected via sama. (Schoeler, 2006: 80). With the
compilation of the Qur'an by 'Uthman
however, one notes that authoritative
copies of the Qur'an were sent out to the provincial capitals ( amsar), binding people
to recite according to its skeletal text of these master copies. A teacher was sent with
each copy to provide instruction regarding its oral reading. In this manner, 'Uthman
109 This is contrary to Sezgin who does not make a distinction between hypomnēmata and syngramma and
interprets all these works as proper books. A person referencing al-Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim might do the same.
However, if this distinction between the two kinds of writing is not maintained, it does create confusion in
interpreting all these works. This distinction was already recognised by nineteenth century scholars such as
Sprenger and Goldziher. Part of the confusion is that Arabic sources do not make this distinction either, refering
to all written books, whether private, scattered or edited works as "kitab". "It is therefore necessary to verify what
sort of writing hides behind the term kitab. The absence of the distinction between syngramma and hypomnēmata
is a serious flaw which affects the whole of the Geschichte. Admitedly, the line between syngramma and
hypomnēmata cannot always be drawn with certainty in Arabic literature ... " See Schoeler, The Oral and the
Written in Early Islam: 79, 176.
110 See Ibn Mujāhid, Kitab al-Sabah: 396; Dānī, Jāmi' al-Bayān: 400, 555.
26

"published" the masahif, it now becoming syngramma. (Schoeler, 2006: 76).
Personal masahif which differed with that of 'Uthman's ag
s were either burned, torn,
erased (as one would find in existing palimpsests) or amended according to the copy
sent by 'Uthman 4
.
(A‘zami, 2003: 96-97).
Tajwid - Early Codification
Nelson states that "Tajwid is the system of rules regulating the correct oral rendering
of the Qur'an." The first compilation dedicated to this "oral rendering of the Qur'an"
is considered to be al-Khaqāniyyah of Abū Muzāhim al-Khaqānī (d. 325/937).111 The
poem does not hold many of the later technical terminologies and its expressions
represent terms utilised during that early period. It holds terms like "rattil", "hadi',
"i'rāb", "faşāḥah" and "lahn". Al-Khaqāniyyah also conceptualizes a few elements of
talaqqī discussed before, like the transmission of the Qur'an, a Qur'anic reading
conforming to the 'Uthmanic orthography, waqf and gira'at. Therefore, Nöldeke
noted that "the entire attitude of the poem is clear evidence that the teaching of the
Koranic recitation is derived from the soil of the cult of reciters." (Nöldeke, 2013:
568). However, it should be remembered that though writings on tajwid codified the
sounds of the Qur'an (Nelson: 14), it did not displace the orality of the Qur'an.
"The science of tajwid is itself transmitted orally, the student imitating
and practicing the sounds produced by the teacher. Since many of the
rules for pronunciation are uniquely applied to the Qur'an and are not
applicable to the literary language or to the local dialect, they are
incomprehensible without oral example. This is why the many texts
which set out the rules of tajwid are considered supplementary to the oral
transmission. The written rules function only as an aid to help the
111 Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 2/321.
27

student identify and remember what he or she has heard." (Nelson, 2001:
15).
In every generation there were those who were recognised as experts in Qur'anic
recitation. The Prophet Muhammad
himself announced the expert reciters
amongst his Companions when he remarked that "learn to recite the Qur'an112 from
four: 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud, Salim, Mu'adh ibn Jabal and Ubayy ibn Kab"
113
The Prophet
referred to these experts as the class of reciters (qurra').114 The
second generation Companions who read to those who read directly to the Prophet
included Abū Hurayrah, Ibn 'Abbās, Mughīrah ibn Abī Shihab al-Makhzūmī,
amongst others
.
It was via them that the various Qur'anic readings filtered to the
eponymous Readers. Dānī (d. 444/1052) lists numerous Qur'anic experts in various
categories: experts from amongst the Companions, experts in Medina, Sham, Iraq, the
112 Though the most common known wording of this hadith mentions "khudhu" (grasp), other transmissions of
this hadith also have "istagri'u" and "iqra'u" (learn it's recitation). See Tajwid al-Lafth fi Qira'at al-Qur'an: 115-116.
113 Bukhārī, Șaķīķ, 5/27, 28, 36.
Though only four names are mentioned, it does not preclude others who were regarded as experts. Ibn Hajar
discusses the various opinions regarding only four names being mentioned and offers his concluding view: all the
names mentioned in these transmissions are from the tribe of Aws and the transmitter, Anas ibn Malik de, made
this statement in context of the rivalry that existed between the Aws and Khazraj tribes. For details see Ibn Hajar,
Fath al-Bārī: 9/51.
114 In the military expedition of Bi'r Ma'unah, 70 Companions were killed who were titled " qurra". Though they
were specialists in Qur'anic recitation, they were not necessarily reliable hadith transmitters. Al-Meneese explains:
"Bazzī and Hafs were both weak by standards of hadith scholars, as were many other Qur'an
transmitters, because they were not hadith specialists. But at the same time, scholars were
unanimous in accepting their expertise in Qur'anic reading. A Qur'anic reader could make
mistakes in transmitting hadith, reporting them by meaning and dropping some words due to not
being a specialist in this field, yet still retain mastery and expertise in the Qur'an and its variants.
The converse is also true. Some senior hadith experts were known to be weak in their preserving
of the Qur'an and its readings, making mistakes. Their expertise in hadith did not necessarily
translate into expertise in Qur'an. At the same time, there were also individuals that master both
Qur'an and hadith." (al-Meneese, 2021: 73).
One may therefore conclude that the Qur'anic readings and their experts are not evaluated by the
standards of hadith and their specialists.
28

Seven eponymous Readers, their transmitters and experts of ada.115 These Qur'anic
experts devoted their lives to studying, mastering and propagating the oral rendering
of the Qur'an.
One may be inclined to think that the codification of the Qur'anic sounds started
relatively late, considering that Ibn al-Nadīm (d. 385) lists numerous categories of
Qur'anic sciences in his Fihrist (Catalogue), but mentions no books under a science
named "tajwid".116 However, there are numerous disciplines and sciences that
recorded various elements and aspects of the sounds of the Qur'an. This is probably
most apparent in the books of gira'at and those works that documented facets of the
Arabic language. One of the earliest may be the treatise of Abu al-Aswad al-Du'alī (d.
69/688) on Arabic grammar, in which he devised diacritical markings for the
"sounding" of the letters;
"a single dot placed after, on, or below the letter constituted a damma,
fatha or kasra, respectively. Similarly two dots placed after, on, or below
the letter indicated damma tanween (double damma), fatha tanween or
kasra tanween, respectively."117 (A‘zami, 2003: 139-140).
Consider also the following titles preceding Abū Muzahim's Khāqāniyyah:
· 'Ali ibn Hamzah al-Kisa'ī (d. 189) - Ma Talhan fih al-'Ammah (Those
[pronunciations] in which the Laity Err).
· Yahya al-Yazīdī (d. 202) - Kitab al-Maqșūr wa al-Mamdūd (The Book on
Shortening and Lengthening [of sounds]) and a book on diacritics, Kitab al-
Naqt wa al-Shakl.118
115 Dānī, al-Urjūzat al-Mutanabbihah: 96-143.
116 Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist: 33.
117 See also Dānī, al-Muļkam: 6-7.
118 See Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist: 38; Suyūtī, Bughyat al-Wu āt fi Țabagāt al-Lughawiyyīn was al-Nuņāt. 2/285.
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· Abū 'Ubayd Qāsim ibn Sallām (d. 224/839) - similar to Yazīdī, he wrote a
book on madd and qasr, Kitab al-Maqsūr wa al-Mamdūd.119
. Abd Allah ibn Dhakwan (d. 242), one of the eponymous Qur'an transmitters
- he wrote Mā Yajib 'alā Qāri' al-Qur'an 'inda Harakat Lisanihī ( That which
is Compulsory upon the Reciter of the Qur'an During Recitation).120
· Abū Hātim Sijistānī (d. 255/869) wrote books titled Kitab al-Faşāņah (The
Book on Eloquence), Kitab Ma yalhan fi-hi al-ammah (Those
[pronunciations] in which the Laity Err), Kitab al-Maqsūr wa al-Mamdūd
(The Book on Shortening and Lengthening [ of sounds]), Kitab al-Hija' ( The
Book on the Arabic Alphabet) and Kitab al-Idgham (The Assimilation of
Letters).121
· Ismail ibn 'Abd Allah al-Nahhas (d. after 280) - he wrote Kitab al-Lafth ( The
Book on Pronunciation) and Kitab al-Ada' ( The Book on the Execution [of
sounds]). Danī sometimes refers to this book as Kitab al-Lafth and at times as
Kitab al-Ada'. 122 It seems to be one and the same book because the discussions
quoted by Danī from this work are similar, revolving around the lengthening
(madd) and shortening (qasr) of sounds, tafkhīm and tarqīq, amongst other
topics generally found in tajwid currently.
· Mutarrif ibn 'Abd al-Rahman (d. ? )123 - he wrote a book on "ada" (correct
execution).124
See Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist: 78.
120 See Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 1/405. Abū al-Karam Mubarak (d. 550) and Sakhāwī (d. 643) both quote
Ibn Dhakwan on his definition on tajwīd; it most likely is from this very title. See Mubarak, al-Mibah: 1/506;
Sakhāwī, Jamāl al-Qurrā': 2/526.
See Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist: 64.
122 See Dānī, Jāmi' al-Bayan: 200, 207, 354, 438, 441, 450, 706.
123 Ibn al-Jazarī does not give his date of demise, but mentions that he read to the student of Warsh, Yunus ibn
'Abd al-A'la (d. 264). See Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihayah: 2/300, 406.
124 See Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 2/300.
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Titles like Kitab al-Naqt of Khalil (d. 170)125, Kitab al-Aşwat by Muhammad ibn
Mustanīr Qutrub (d. 206), Kitab al-Aşwāt by 'Abd al-Malik al-Aşma'ī (d. 217), Kitab
al-Aşwat by Abu al-Hasan Sa'id al-Akhfash (d. 221) may also be included; all
discussing various aspects and elements of what was later included into the science of
tajwīd.126
125 See Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist: 38.
126 Al-Hamad lists the following titles:
1)
Kitab al-Lughah wa Makhārij al-Hurūf wa Ușul al-Naķw by Abū 'Alī al-Hasan ibn Dawūd al-Naqqād (d.
before 350).
2)
Kitab al-Așwāt by Muhammad ibn Mustanīr Quțrub (d. 206).
3)
Kitab al-Aşwāt by 'Abd al-Malik al-Aşma'ī (d. 217).
4)
Kitab al-Aşwāt by Abu al-Hasan Sa'id al-Akhfash (d. 221).
5)
Kitab al-Hurūfby 'Alī ibn Hamzah al-Kisā'ī (d. 189).
6)
Kitab al-Huruf by Muhammad ibn Yazīd al-Mubarrid (d. 285).
7)
Kitab al-Nutq by Abū 'Alī al-Hasan ibn 'Abd Allah al-Așfahānī.
8)
Kitab al-Nutq by Abū al-Qasim 'Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Azdī.
See Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist: 52, 55, 59, 66, 81, 85; al-Hamad, Abhath fi 'Ilm al-Tajwid: 12-13.
31

Tajwid's Inextricable Link to Qira'at
Tajwid is inextricably linked to the qira'at. All the aforementioned titles on qira'at
would also discuss aspects of tajwid. Matters pertaining to tajwid are clearly discussed
in Kitab al-Sabah of Ibn Mujahid127 which is a book devoted to qira'at, while the
Seven eponymous Readers are mentioned by the earliest writings dedicated to tajwid;
the poems of Abū Muzahim, Malați (d. 377/987) and Lālakā'ī (d. after 386/996).
Tajwid, as we know it now, deals with rules for Qur'anic recitation and is generally
applied by all Seven eponymous Readers. Gade writes that "the term qira'at usually
denotes the accepted variant readings of the Qur'an ... they are minor differences in the
vocalization of the same 'Uthmanic text, and all deploy the same system of guidelines
for recitation, tajwid." (Gade, 2006: 4/372). Thus, "the formal discipline of
reciting/reading ( 'ilm al-qira'ah) encompasses both study of the variant readings
(gira'at) of the written codex or mushaf and also the methods and rules of oral
recitation (cantillation), or tajwid." (William A. Graham, 2006: 116).
Conclusively, "the study of the qira'at is, as indicated, inextricable from the science or
art of tajwid' (William A. Graham, 2006: 118) or it could be said that tajwid forms an
integral element in the qira'āt. (Leemhuis, 2003).
127 In his introduction he mentions lahn in recitation; a topic commonly discussed in tajwid. Furthermore, matters
pertaining to pronunciation and tajwīd, like itbāq, hams, safir, isti'lā' etc., are also discussed. See Kitab al-Sabah:
45, 46, 105, 106.
Likewise, matters of tajwid are also discussed in numerous places in al-Irshad of 'Abd al-Mun'im ibn Ghalbun (d.
389) and al-Ghayah of Ibn Mihran (d. 381). Note that they were both in the same century as Ibn Mujahid and
Abū Muzāķim.
32

Tajwid is Interconnected with Arabic
Tajwid is also linked to the Arabic language since the Qur'an is in Arabic (Gilliot &
Larcher, 2003: 4/109). There are numerous verses of the Qur'an which mention the
Qur'an being in Arabic e.g. "We revealed it as an Arabic recital" ( Qur'an 'Arabiyyan)
in Sūrah Yusuf: 2, Sūrah Țahā: 113, Sūrat al-Shūrā: 7, Sūrat al-Zukhruf: 3, amongst
other verses. Discussions pertaining to Arabic phonology and phonetics overlap and
are shared between tajwid and the earliest writers of Arabic. Books on the Arabic
language preceded writings in tajwid. Therefore, discussions that would later be found
in books of tajwīd, appeared earlier in books dedicated to Arabic, like Kitab al-'Ayn of
Khalil and al-Kitab of Sībaway.128 Both Khalil and Sībaway discuss the makharij
(articulation points) and șifat (attributes) of the Arabic letters, which appear as
chapter headings in current books of tajwīd.
For example, when discussing the assimilation of sounds in the Arabic language,
Sībaway mentions that the nun may be assimilated into the waw or the ya', with
nasalization or without nasalization (Sibaway, 1988: 4/453). Within the system of the
Seven eponymous Qur'an Readings, assimilation of the nun into the waw or ya'
without nasalization is attributed to Khalaf while the remaining eponymous Readers
will transmit assimilation with nasalization. In tajwid, the articulation points and
attributes of the nun, the waw and the ya' would be discussed, along with the
phonological details of how the sounds should be assimilated when reciting the
Qur'an. Thus, though these sciences are all discussing the same matter, Sībaway
considers its application in the Arabic language, the science of Qira'at looks at who
amongst the Readers this application would be attributed to, while tajwid details the
aspects of its pronunciation when reciting the Qur'an.
128 Al-Farāhīdī, Kitab al-'Ayn: 1/51-58; Sībaway, al-Kitab: 4/431-436.
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Other noteworthy contributors from grammarians and philologists to aspects of
Arabic phonology and phonetics are Sayrafi (d. 368/979) in his commentary of
Sībaway's Kitab and Ibn Jinnī (d. 392/1002) in Sirr Șina'at al-I'rab.
In conclusion, the earliest appearances of tajwid-related discussions appeared
predominantly in books of qira'āt and Arabic. As correct Qur'anic recitation is
grasped via oral interaction, Sībaway writes regarding the letters of the Arabic
alphabet that "they can only be realized orally."129 When presenting the different
Arabic letters or sounds, Sibaway further notes those which are allowed in Qur'anic
recitation and those which are not permitted in Qur'anic recitation (la tastahsin fi
qirā'at al-Qur'an).130
To a lesser degree, early tajwid-related discussions are also scattered between writings
on lahn, fasahah, ada', amongst other works. Despite the aforementioned book-titles
and writings that discussed various aspects of the Qur'an's orality, al-Khaqāniyyah is
recognised as the first book in the science of tajwid; a book dedicated to the
codification of the Qur'an's oral rendition. Soon after Abū Muzahim's composition,
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Malațī (d. 377/987) compiles a poem of 59 lines on
Qur'anic recitation, a pastiche on al-Khaqāniyyah; with its exact meter and rhyme,
paying homage to al-Khaqāniyyah.131 Likewise, in the same century, Muhammad ibn
Ahmad al-'Ijlī al-Lālakā'ī132 (d. after 386/996) also compiles a poem on Qur'anic
recitation based on the same meter and rhyme of al-Khaqaniyyah. Lalakā'ī explicitly
129 Sībaway, al-Kitab: 4/432.
130 Ibid.
131 Țala'at mentions another work titled Makhārij al-Hurūf wa Șifatihā of Ibn Abī al-Asbagh al-Harranī (d. 339)
that was written before Malati's poem, edited by Muhammad Ya'qub Turkistanī in 1991. (Tala at, 1998: 154).
However, I could not find this book of Harranī mentioned in any of the bibliographical works and the only book
edited by Turkistānī with the name Makharij al-Huruf wa Șifatiha in 1991 was authored by Abu al-Asbagh al-
Ishbīlī, better known as Ibn al-Țahhān (d. after 560).
132 Lālakā'ī was a student of Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Nașr al-Shadha'ī, who was a student of the famous Ibn Mujahid
and Abū Muzāhim. See al-Hamad, The Science of Tajwid before al-Ri'ayah and al-Tahdīd, Imam Shațibi Institute
of Qur'anic Sciences: 173; Ghayat al-Nihayah: 2/85-86.
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mentions his reliance on Abū Muzahim as well as quoting a hemistich verbatim from
al-Khāqāniyyah.133
This influence of al-Khaganiyyah extends into the later centuries, like the famous
Qaşīdat al-Huşriyyah of 'Ali ibn 'Abd al-Ghanī (d. 488/1095) in the succeeding
century. The poem of Muhammad ibn Yusuf Khurāsānī (d. end of 400s) may also be
included as a pastiche of al-Khaqāniyyah.134 Though the Nūniyyah of Sakhāwī pays
homage to al-Khaqāniyyah, it is not considered a pastiche due to the rhyme and meter
not agreeing. This influence continues up to the present-day when Sheikh 'Abd Allah
ibn Șāliņ al-Ubayd compiled his pastiche on al-Khaqāniyyah, al-Khulāşah fi Ilm al-
Tajwīd.
133 See line 108 of Lālakā'ī's poem. Al-'Ubayd, al-Kulāşah fi al-Tajwīd: 151.
134 See Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 2/286-287.
35

The Usage of the term "Tajwid"
The term "tajwid' was not used to describe Qur'anic recitation, nor as reference to a
particular science during the first hijrī century. This section looks at the earliest
appearance of the term "tajwid", employing its literal and technical meanings.
The First Century
'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ūd
said: "Apply "tajwīd' in the Qur'an (jawwidū al-Qur'an)
and adorn it with the best of voices".135 'Ali age explains the meaning of tartil as
"excellence in the (application of the) letters and knowledge of the pauses". ( tajwid al-
huruf wa ma'rifat al-wuqūf).136
Second Century
In the second century, the word tajwid, in its literal sense, is used by one of the
eponymous Readers, Hamzah (d. 156/773), when he relates that "we learned good
recitation (jawdat al-qirā'ah) by Ibn Abī Laylā".137 Ayyub al-Sakhtiyānī (d. 131/749)
also used it when he described the recitation of Miqsam ibn Bujrah (d. 101/720): "he
did not recite well (lam yakun jayyid al-qira'ah)".138
135 Ibn al-Jazarī, al-Nashr. 1/210.
The editors of al-Nashr, Dr Ayman Rushdī Suwayd and Dr Salim Jaknī Shingīti, both acknowledge other versions
of this narration from 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud, appearing as "jarrid al-Qur'an" i.e. remove anything additional, like
diacritical markings, from the Qur'anic text. This version seems to appear in most of the sources ( al-Nashr, ed.
Shinqīti: 3/556; ed. Suwayd: 1/695). Suwayd asks a pertinent question as to whether one version of this narration
could be considered a letter-distortion (tashif) of the other, considering that there is much resemblance between a
waw and a ra' (l,>, and 1,3)? The answer that both him and Shinqīti presents is that the context will determine
the word choice. This means that "jawwidu" is in context with what follows i.e. reciting the Qur'an in a beautiful
voice. While in the version of "jarridu" the rest of the narration relates that one should not mix with the Qur'an
that which is not from it. See al-Danī, al-Muhkam fi Naqt al-Masahif. 10. Additionally, in all the manuscript copies
of al-Nashr, it appears as jawwidū.
136 Ibn al-Jazarī, al-Nashr. 1/209.
137 Dhahabī, Ma'rifat al-Qurrā' al-Kibār. 1/113; Ibn al-Jazarī, Ghayat al-Nihāyah: 2/165.
138 Mizzī, Tahdhīb al-Kamāl fi Asmā' al-Rijāl: 28/463.
36